Tree and bush species form a significant part of livelihood systems, particularly in Illangama. In Illangama, families have strong interest in species that can be used as animal forage, firewood and charcoal, and varieties with medicinal properties. They also use trees as live barriers in soil conservation structures, to extract dyes, and fibers for artisanal products. Alumbre residents are less aware of the uses of tree species, are unfamiliar with local names, and are mainly interested in trees for the exploitable wood they can produce. The water quality and the biodiversity assessments were designed to highlight the fragility in high-altitude. The initial assessments showed that farmers’ voice con- cerns about environmental quality, recognize that their productive practices can create environmental damage, and seek alternatives to resource-mining activities. The strongest concern for the environment was voiced by community members in the upper watershed who recognize environmental change such as variable rainfall pat- terns, less water availability and others. The assessments also strengthened linkages between the research team and community members; the participatory means of con-ducting them and open sharing of findings built owner- ship of the adaptive management process. In order to prioritize interventions, stakeholders need information on vulnerability and its variability over space.Results showed that about 4000 ha in Illangama and 2000 ha in Alumbre are extremely vulnerable to environmental damage. These areas needed special attention during the planning and management phases. The vulnerability mapping exercise uncovered evidence of conflicts between ideal and actual land uses: Some of the most environmentally vulnerable lands are currently under intensive crop production.
These areas should be reserved for conservation or reforested and managed sustainably. Research thus focused on the physical and economic/social consequences of less intensive uses on vulnerable lands. Such activities are especially critical in areas of water recharge. Two main challenges constrain efforts at conservation in these areas: Lack of finance to ensure that households can survive during the transition from intensive to extensive production , and low rates of return in extensive production systems. Few own sufficient land resources to sustain a family on forestry production. Part of the problem is institutional; farmers have no means of capturing the off-farm benefits from less intensive land use. The team began negotiations with down- stream govern ments to examine if these governments were willing to pay farmers to avoid downstream dam-ages. These negotiations are ongoing, but downstream siltation is increasingly associated with costly flooding and there is strong interest in finding low-cost ways to avoid these damages. The research identified several environmentally friendly agricultural production options for farms in the Chimbo . These alternatives increase productivity, enhance soil retention and improve soil health. They were tested on model farms, where farmers participated in site preparation, vertical grow rack cultivation, and evaluation. Field days demonstrated the practices to farmers. Substantial adoption has occurred already and, given the success of the alter- natives, we expect more widespread adoption as information becomes more widespread. The pilot sites were established on farms with average sizes of 7.5 ha. In 2006, production systems included small pine forests, natural pasture, small areas of improved pasture, and potato production together with mashua . At that time, the most vulnerable areas had been devoted to crop production. The research team designed a farm use plan incorporating improved cropping systems and farming practices, pastures and woodlands . We tested and subsequently recommended use of improved potato varieties, faba beans, barley, quinoa and chocho. Conservation agriculture practices such as improved rotations, reduced tillage, and increased ground cover were included . We also recommended in-situ conservation of native Andean tubers such as native potatoes, oca , melloco , mashua and carrot . As of 2010, the project had been functioning for 5 years and it was possible to evaluate its impacts. This was done by transecting the sub-watersheds to measure the extent of adoption of the practices and computing changes in farm incomes associated with the practices. Table 6 shows an assessment of uptake of BMPs in Illangama and Alumbre. In Illangama, net economic benefits have risen to about $ 1921 per hectare per year, an increase of about 65% compared to 2006.
Improvements have resulted from incremental increases in yields of potatoes, faba beans, chocho, barley, quinoa and improved pasture. Soil management has changed dramatically as ground cover is more widespread throughout the year. Part of this change was caused by changes in relative prices; potato and other crop prices have become increasingly variable and farmers are moving toward dairy production with continuous pasture and other more environmentally suitable crops. Potato net profits have, however, grown by as much as 50%, due to improved rotations and reduced pesticide use . Use of late blight-resistant potato varieties, improved soil fertility and use of better-quality seeds help lower variable to improved forages, and better sanitation and feeding practices. Food security has also improved. Diversified grain sources broaden the dietary base, reduce risks from dependence on single crops, and increase energy and protein intake. The data indicate impressive trends toward more di- versified production, with increases in relatively new products such as quinoa. Quinoa production has emerged, and the crop provides nutrition for home con- sumption and high prices in the market. As a result of all these changes, erosion is being reduced and water quality is improving. In Alumbre, net benefits from agricultural production increased by 81% to $1629 per hectare per year in 2010. This increment was a product of increased yields of white maize, yellow maize and beans, resulting from improved management practices. The main engine was introduction of improved varieties, and more intensive management concentrated in less vulnerable and more productive areas. Planting densities have increased and integrated pest management practices have reduced input costs. Increased agro-diversity and lower profit risks have also increased food security. Use of vulnerability maps to guide land use planning has reduced production on most vulnerable lands and improved ecosystem services. Indicators of biodiversity, soil retention and water quality have improved alongside improvements in agricultural profitability. Farmers now concentrate productive activities on the most fertile and least vulnerable lands. Yield improvements and cost re- ductions allow farmers to earn higher incomes and si- multaneously improve environmental conditions. Ability to observe farming practices on the pilot farms has built confidence in the new practices and they have naturally spread throughout the watershed. Concurrently, the study of biodiversity raised consciousness about the value of native species and led to planting and maintenance of these potential sources of biodiversity. These actions have improved environmental conditions and water avail- ability Prior to 2006, conservation practices in the area did not exist. Now, various practices are widely found, such as improved crop rotations, strip cultivation, deviation ditches, contour plowing, and use of live barriers.
An indigenous innovation has led to the protection of devia- tion ditches with various local species. These include milín grass and native plants such as Quishuar, Yagual, Chachacoma, Romerillo, Aliso, Pumamaqui, Lupinus, Piquil. Contour cultivation is also widely practiced now in both watersheds, irrigation water management has improved and actions have been taken to protect areas of water recharge. This protection has involved replanting many of the native plants metioned above. Table 7 summarizes results of the 2010 evaluation. Farmers in the Illangama watershed were more likely to apply all natural resource management methods, except for green fertilizer. Differences over time of use of con- servation methods are statistically significant. Our team identified local stakeholders,vertical grow system institutions and government and non-government partners to engage in participatory planning. Participants identified research themes and designed research activities and collaborated in on-farm trials. The process included meetings, work- shops and information exchanges. Stakeholders immedi- ately recognized the need for coordinated cross-sectorial actions and institutional change to increase the value of natural resources. A regular meeting of a project steering group was held; the group identified and promoted the idea of integrated adaptive management. This group en- gaged local and Provincial Governments who are full partners in the process. The Provincial Government cre- ated a new unit for environmental management and link-ages across government units has facilitated coordi- nated actions; our technical team has trained the Gov- ernment’s technical team and this strategic alliance has been strengthened over time. The alliance is important because the Provincial Government bears responsibility for creating and enforcing the regulatory and legal re- gime. Our research agenda was arrived at after an arduous process of building consensus among stakeholders. Pro- bably the most valuable research output at the start of the process was to help stakeholders understand and appre- ciate the value of their natural resources. This new- found appreciation of value has strengthened incentives for actions to promote soil retention and health, and to use native species as a contributor to this conservation. Native species of trees and bushes have been widely in- corporated into live barriers to reduce water and wind erosion, and as lining biomass for deviation ditches. The team also helped identify a major source of reduced wa- ter supply and quality: Incursions into the upper páramo areas. As a result, we have built support for increased intensification at lower elevations and a sense of com- munity-wide disapproval for those who exploit the pris- tine higher-elevation areas of the Illangama. Social pres- sure is having an effect. Social capital has been strengthened in many ways. The participatory planning process is strengthening so- cial networks in the region. In addition, training in bio- diversity, natural resource valuation, and natural resource management has built networks of activists in both mi- cro-watersheds. Efforts to understand the potential bene- fits of higher-valued market chains and obstacles to par- ticipation in them have helped identify how networks of producers can have more effects than individual actors. Subsequent efforts to build these networks have also re- inforced local social capital.
Some of the other qualities that are desired in new rabbiteye blueberry cultivars are the development of increased cold hardiness, better adaptation to particular climates, adaptation to mineral soils or soils with high pH, the extension of the fruiting season, high vigor,reduced plant stature, high quality fruit, suitability for mechanical harvest,disease and insect resistance,tolerance to environmental stress,and higher nutraceutical properties .Yield is the most important trait from the grower’s perspective, and cultivars that are not only high yielding, but are consistently high yielding across years are desirable . Yield is a function of many factors including the amount of flower clusters per plant, flower number per cluster, flowering twigs per bush,fruit set and drop, and fruit size . The commercial crop yields are typically considerably less than that documented in experimental plots, primarily due to inconsistencies in plant health and pollination as well as seasonal influences.Flowering and fruiting seasons are important traits that vary from cultivar to cultivar. Late flowering, early ripening cultivars and/or tolerance to low temperatures during and following bloom are also desirable traits that breeders are striving for in rabbiteye due to the risk of late spring frost damage .In much of Alabama, blueberries with low chilling requirements are used, but once the chilling requirements are met, there is still a risk of a damaging late spring frost . With the availability of cultivars with a range of flowering times, a grower can select cultivars that match their risk of late spring frosts and consequent crop loss . Rabbiteye blueberry floral buds tend to be rather cold hardy, but as flower development continues, the bud’s susceptibility to cold damage increases .Spiers , documented 7 distinct stages of floral bud development. An inverse relationship was observed between the stage of development and the flower bud’s susceptibility to cold damage . Spiers also found that swollen flower buds were not damaged by temperatures of −4˚C, but some were killed at−6˚C. At stage four, or when individual flowers become distinguishable, flower buds were killed by −4˚C, and during the transition to the distinctly separated individual flowers stage, temperatures of −2˚C were lethal. Temperatures of 0˚Cwere not found to damage any of the flower buds in developmental stages one through five, but temperatures of −1˚C were damaging to flowers with open corollas approaching stage six of flower bud development.In addition to the flowering period, the ripening period is also important in blueberry production. The ability to target an early market for premium prices is one reason a grower would risk a late freeze by planting an early flowering and fruiting cultivar such as “Climax” .