Job’s tears is native to tropical Asia where it grows in forest margins and swamps and has been introduced throughout the tropics . Cultivated soft-shelled forms are grown as a cereal in northeastern India and southeastern Asia, though it has been replaced now by rice and maize on a large scale . Forest dwellers in northeastern India gather the hard fruits of wild forms and bring them to tribal and village markets where they are sold for ornamental purposes, contributing to the local economy of the forest villages . The hard-shelled form also grows along the eastern coast of India, where it is found as a weed in rice fields. It seems possible that Job’s tears is also mentioned in historical sources, but the translations of the concerning text fragments refer to wheat instead. In his enumeration of the wheat varieties, Theophrastus mentions a variety that grows not far from Bactria and produces kernels that grow as large as olive stones. Pliny includes this Greek reference in his description of wheat varieties, but this time the size is even equated to that of the ear of a cereal. Together with barley , rice , and millet , Job’s tears is native to this area, and it is the only one that comes into consideration when a large kernel is concerned. The glossy bract varies both in size and shape, and it may reach the length of a small olive,container raspberries although most specimens are smaller. So far, sub-fossil remains of Job’s tears have only been found at Berenike and in India.
Although fruits are actually found on many sites in India, they have only been published from eight sites, including early historical Ahichchtra and Balathal. Other plant remains that have been used as beads in ancient Egypt include seeds of grape , accessory fruits of the sycamore fig , seeds of rosary pea , unripe fruits and female flowers of the date palm , endocarps of the Egyptian plum , leaves of grasses , fruits from Polygonum senegalense Meis., and possibly pierced tubers from earth almond . The stone fruit from olive that has been previously described as a bead is now considered as a gnawed specimen.The balsam tree is a member of the incense-tree family . Some species of Boswellia produce frankincense, which is also traded as incense, and include the olibanum tree , whereas some members of the genus Commiphora produce myrrh. Usually, C. myrrha Engl. is considered as the tree from which common or hirabol myrrh is obtained, although this is doubted by Wood . Scented myrrh is produced by C. guidottii Chiov. and is also known under a variety of names, including bissabol, habak hadi, perfumed bdellium, scented bdellium, coarse myrrh, East Indian myrrh, false myrrh, perfumed myrrh, sweet myrrh, and opopanax . Whereas frankincense and myrrh are produced as solid resins, some of the Commiphora species produce balsams, which are aromatics that remain liquid. One of these species is C. gileadensis, whose distribution in Egypt is restricted to the Gebel Elba area . The balsam can be obtained from three different parts of the tree: the dried fruits , the dried wood , and the bark from which an unguent is collected .
Judging by the many sub-fossil fruit fragments, it is assumed that balsam was probably available as carpobalsamum in Berenike. According to Pliny , the quality of opobalsamum was better than that of carpobalsamum and xylobalsamum, its price comparable to that of the best-quality frankincense. Theophrastus , on the other hand, states that the fruit is more fragrant than the gum, the latter probably extracted from the stem and thus similar to Opobalsamum. Carpobalsamum was used in the production of the Egyptian perfume metopium, which constitutes an oil extracted from the seeds of bitter almonds , mixed with some other plant materials . The balsam extract was also used for making ointments, such as the balm of Gilead, which is also called Mecca balsam and opobalsum . In more than 60 different samples from Berenike, fruits and seeds have been found from Commiphora gileadensis. The only other member of this genus that is native to Egypt is C. quadricincta Schweinf. ex Engl. This species is characterized by four longitudinal wings along the fruit stone, as is indicated by its Latin name. C. quadricincta has only been recorded in 1929 from the Hailab area and also from the Red Sea coastal area more to the south. Because of this, identifying the sub-fossil specimens as C. quadricincta is not plausible. The aromatic fruits C. gileadensis were probably frequently imported from the Gebel Elba area, where this tree is still quite abundant together with acacia trees. Because C. gileadensis is native to both sides of the Red Sea, it is also possible that the fruits were sometimes imported from more remote trade centers on the East African coast and the Arabian Peninsula. Both the presence of the fruits and seeds and their morphology exclude the possibility that we are dealing with the Indian bdellium tree .
The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions the export of bdellium from northwest India, so the presence of fruits and seeds is not in keeping with this kind of commodity. Moreover, the fruits of the Indian bdellium tree are two-celled, whereas the specimens from Berenike are without exception one-celled, being quite similar to those from the balsam tree. Today, the Bisharin nomads who live in the Gebel Elba area do not exploit the balsam tree for its balsam or fragrant fruits . The same is also true for Yemen: the branches are used here instead as firewood . Two other records of the balsam tree from Egypt have been published, although both undated and only one with a reference to a site, namely, Thebes. Additionally, several resins are recorded that belong to Commiphora .The Egyptian plum has fruits of about 2 cm in diameter. Only the outer, soft layer of the fruit is edible, comparable with, for example, plums and cherries. The edible pulp is so mucilaginous that it is also used as birdlime. According to Pliny , the fruits were also used in Egypt for making wine, and Theophrastus states that cakes are made from the stoned fruits. Also the seeds can be eaten, but this has not been practiced by the inhabitants of Berenike and Shenshef. The calyx is persistent, and this explains why it is sometimes found in addition to the fruit stones. The genus was formerly mentioned as Sebestena, and the old name is still in use in the name of the New World species Cordia sebestena L., the geiger tree. Dried fruits of C. myxa and C. latifolia Royle are still offered in spice markets as sapistan . They are used as a medicine for chest complaints and inflammations of the urinary tract . Despite the well-documented archaeobotanical record of C. myxa from Egypt, it is thought to be a native of the Indian subcontinent. Its exotic status in Egypt is supported by the cultivated specimens grown in gardens and the absence of naturalized specimens. Most probably, C. myxa had been introduced at an early stage into western Asia and northeast Africa, which is expressed in several of its common names. Theophrastus , for example, states that the tree grows in abundance in Thebes. Classical writers refer to it as ἡ κοκκυμηλέα [plum] or “myxis” , although there is some confusion by Pliny with respect to the plum , which is common to Europe. The English translation of Theophrastus adds “sebesten” and “Egyptian,” whereas “Indian cherry” is used in India . Stone fruits of this species are well represented in early and late deposits from Berenike and also in late deposits from Shenshef. Occasionally, whole fruits have been found. The fruit also occurs at other Egyptian sites, dated to the pharaonic period, such as Saqqara, Deir el-Medineh, and Thebes. The stone fruit from Saqqara, dated to the Third Dynasty, shows that the tree was introduced and cultivated in Egypt from at least as far back as the Old Empire . Thus, berries of C. myxa may have been imported to Berenike from the Nile Valley or the Mediterranean area, but also long-distance supply from India may not be ruled out. Because the berries are susceptible to fermentation,draining pots only fresh ones may have been available from Egypt proper. Indian berries may have been dried or pickled, methods that are still in use.In addition to Cordia myxa, C. sinensis has also been found at Berenike and Shenshef. Recently, the latter species has been split into two distinct species: C. sinensis Lam. and C. nevillii Alston . C. Sinensis, which grows in moist habitats, is widespread in Africa, though its distribution in Egypt is limited to the southern part and one location in Sinai. In Egypt, only its presence in the Gebel Elba area may be considered as indigenous, whereas in other parts of the country it only grows in gardens. C. nevillii, on the other hand, is adapted to more-arid conditions and has a Somalia-Masai distribution in Africa, the Gebel Elba area in which it is found being an isolated northern outpost. Drar collected plants of both species from Gebel Elba .
According to Drar , who uses the old name C. gharaf Ehrenb. ex Ascherson for both species, Cordia grows, but is not common, in the higher reaches of the rocky gorges of the Gebel Elba. Both species have edible fruits that are about half the size of those of C. myxa. According to Schweinfurth , the berries of C. sinensis are of a better taste than those of C. myxa. It is most likely that the fruits from Berenike and Shenshef were imported, at least partly, from the nearby Gebel Elba area. Additionally, the fruits might have been traded from Ethiopia and Eritrea, where substantial populations of both species occur. Both species are also found in the coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent, including Sri Lanka. The trees are also valued for their wood. In the Gebel Elba area, the Bisharin nomads make walking sticks from the branches, which are also products of trade. For that reason, each tree is assigned to a specific family or clan . As far as generative features are concerned, both species can be distinguished by their accrescent calyx but not from their fruits. As only fruits were found in Berenike and Shenshef, the identification is made to the level of a combined taxon. Consequently, previous records of C. sinensis from Abusir and Thebes may refer to C. nevillii as well.Coriander is a garden herb with a quite unpleasant smell. Ripe and dry fruits, however, acquire a pleasant smell and are therefore more in demand than the young plants or the leaves in the use of seasonings. Because the ripe fruits easily scatter from the plant at this late stage of development, harvesting the fruits is therefore very precise work . Coriander probably originates from the eastern Mediterranean, where the oldest finds are recorded from Greece, Jordan, and India. The oldest Egyptian find originates from predynastic Adaïma . Coriander fruits are still much appreciated in Egypt, where the plant is cultivated in the Mediterranean coastal area, the Nile Valley, the oases of the Libyan Desert, and the Sinai . Also, this condiment was in great demand by the Romans, and it was imported in large quantities from Egypt. Pliny states that in his time the best coriander came from Egypt. Coriander is mentioned, for example, in many recipes of Apicius, who lived in the time of Augustus-Tiberius, who collectively reigned from 27 BC–AD 37. The predominant use of coriander’s fruits in preference to its leaves explains why this plant is often found in archaeobotanical research. Fruits and seeds of coriander were scattered in small numbers over several samples, which is especially true for those of Berenike. Coriander is one of the plants that could have been locally cultivated in well-protected and irrigated kitchen gardens. Besides its use as a condiment for flavoring foods and beverages, coriander is also used in medical treatments. It is recommended, for example, by Pliny for all kinds of complaints, such as the treatment of various skin disorders, the retardation of the menstrual period, and as an antidote to snake poison.