Plant remains may become charred by accidental fire, for example, during cooking. They also may be the result of deliberate fire, for example, in the case of burning rubbish and offering food in religious ceremonies. The preservation of organic materials is also affected by salts. The proximity to the sea results in relatively high salt concentrations, and even salic horizons are present in the soil around Berenike. Salt has certain conserving properties for organic remains, as it dehydrates microorganisms responsible for decay, but it also may cause damage as a result of mechanical stress resulting from crystallization and hydration . The latter effect is especially perceptible at the level where the salic horizon is present. For the reconstruction of trade routes, it is important to know the possible areas of origin. Unfortunately, the assignment of a certain plant species to a particular area of origin is problematic. The main reason is, that during Roman times, many cultivated plants were introduced to new areas via old land and sea routes. Long before the Greek and Roman conquests of Egypt, transoceanic trade between India, the Arabian Peninsula, and East Africa had already been established. It is suggested that via such old trade routes African species were introduced into India, such as Lablab purpureus, Vigna unguiculata, Sorghum bicolor, and Pennisetum glaucum . Conversely,plant bench indoor species from the Indian subcontinent found their way to Africa. Scientific names may, in this respect, be misleading.
Those of sesame and tamarind , for example, suggest an Indian origin for both species, whereas this is probably only true for the former one. The unraveling of the migration and trade routes is especially complicated in the area under consideration as it is linked to the Near East where domestication started some 10,000 years ago. Information on the origin and expansion of a certain species can be derived from a variety of sources, in which evidence from archaeobotanical research, plant geography and ancient written sources all play an important role. If necessary, these sources will be discussed to determine the possible trade routes.The genus Abrus belongs to the Leguminosae and contains twelve tropical species. The best-known member of this genus is the rosary pea . The seeds of this species are normally red with a black eye around the hilum. This is interpreted as an imitation aril, but it is puzzling why birds would eat this hard seed because it does not provide any nutrition . Besides the scarlet seeds, entirely white seeds and black seeds have been reported from India. Although India is frequently mentioned as the geographical origin of this genus, its probable origin is Africa, where most species of Abrus are found . Seeds of the rosary pea are used in several ways. Besides its application as a stimulant and its use in medicinal preparations , the rosary pea is also valued for its ornamental properties. In India its seeds have a tradition of being used as weights by goldsmiths, as beads in rosaries and necklaces, and for the decoration of objects such as baskets . Their use in weighing precious metals is attributed to the seeds’ uniform size and weight.
Each seed has a weight of 0.1 g. Because the seed coat is extremely hard and glossy, it is not possible to tamper with the seeds. Nevertheless, some variety in seed weight exists, and it happens that heavier seeds are used for buying and lighter ones for selling . Seeds are not edible because they contain the poisonous protein abrine. The consumption of a few pounded seeds is lethal. Poisoning by rosary pea is also recorded from drinking tea in which several seeds have been immersed for a while. In Egypt the seeds of rosary pea are also used as an additive in mixtures of incense and are offered on markets all over Egypt. An incense sample bought in November 1996 at the Khan al-Khalili bazaar in Cairo contained seeds or fruits from the following plant species: Abrus precatorius, A. cf. fruticulosus, Coriandrum sativum, Phalaris paradoxa, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Nigella sativa, and Senna holosericea. The use of rosary pea seeds in Egyptian incense is also mentioned by Kamal . Additionally, unmixed seeds of the rosary pea are offered for sale . Such supplies together with coins are often used to scatter over bridal couples. In both instances, it is believed that the rosary pea seeds protect against the evil eye. One of the Arabic names, “Any-al afrit,” refers to this belief. It holds that certain people have the power to bring misfortune that could affect other people, cattle, or even houses. The evil eye can only be effective if it strikes the victim’s eye at first glance. A protection against the evil eye can either be offensive or defensive in character. An example of the first approach is the hand of Fatimah, which is used as an amulet. The use of rosary pea seeds in, for example, incense mixtures can be classified among the second approach.
It was also possible, though with some difficulty, to buy an incense from Morocco at the Khan al-Khalili bazaar whose special purpose is protection against the evil eye. Contrary to normal incense samples, this gives off a ghastly smell. That completely black seeds of Abrus sp. can also be used for religious purposes is evidenced by the presence of two such seeds in the well-hidden, covered hole at the back of a Yao wooden statue, which originates from either China, Thailand, or Laos. Together with a piece of animal skin, metal, a paper fragment with text, and bark, these seeds allowed the statue to become gifted with a soul. A similar use is applied to wild rue , a plant species indicative of disturbance. According to Horne , in Iran, the fruits are, among other things, worked into wall hangings and burned as a deterrent to the evil eye. The specimens from Berenike are completely black, just as the ones that originate from grave no. 35 in the mortuary temple of Seti 1 in the necropolis of Thebes and the four seeds stored in the Louvre, which are not further specified . The seeds from the temple of Seti 1 are threaded on a string and have been identified by Schweinfurth. The suggestion by Germer that at the time of Schweinfurth’s identification the red color was still visible, seems very unlikely as it implies that the discoloring of the seeds only started after more than 3,000 years. It is more likely that, taking its use as a bead into consideration, Schweinfurth assumed that he was dealing with the decorative rosary pea. Another possibility is that we are dealing with an African species, in which the following ones come into consideration: A. precatorius ssp. africanus Verdc. , A. somalensis Taub. , A. schimperi Bak. , A. pulchellus Thw. , A. bottae Defl ers , and A. fruticulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. . Seeds of these species are greenish or black and lack the decorative red color of the rosary pea and are only rarely seen at Egyptian markets. With respect to the seeds from Thebes that have been used as beads,greenhouse rolling racks it would make sense that they belong to the rosary pea indeed. Although there was no direct trade during the New Kingdom with India, it is possible that we are dealing here with indirect trade via the east coast of Africa south of the Sahara. Because the specimens of Berenike are not pierced, and thus do not indicate a decorative feature, it might well be that these seeds belong to one of the African species. That these seeds were used as gold weights in Berenike is merely speculative as it implies that precious metals were traded at Berenike, an assumption, however, of which no clear evidence is present up to now.In addition to its valued wood, Nile acacia is exploited for its reddish gum, which exudes spontaneously from the trunk and principal branches and is stimulated by artificial incisions. Additionally, it is exploited for its bark, which contains high concentrations of tannin and can be used for both tanning and dying, and for the pods that serve several purposes. Young pods can be eaten as a vegetable, and roasted seeds serve as a spice. Although green, unripe pods contain even 50 percent more tannin than the bark of the tree, its concentration is halved when the pods are ripe . At Berenike, the Nile acacia is only represented by ripe pods. Although bark and unripe fruits contain more tannin than the ripe fruits, obviously only ripe fruits were processed. The reason is a practical one. Harvesting the bark would kill the tree, whereas unripe fruits are difficult to pound. In fact, ripe pods are still offered for sale in large quantities in spice markets for tanning purposes.
The following procedure was described and partly demonstrated by an Ababda woman. First, pods are pounded with a stone on a piece of cloth or plastic . The pulverized fruits are mixed with water in a proportion of 1 k fruit to 10 L of cold water. A skin is then soaked in this mixture for two days. Next, the hairs are removed by hand. Then the skin is soaked again in a qarad mixture for about another week. Finally, the skin is sun-dried, after which it is suitable for all kinds of processing. Other Acacia species that can be used for tanning are A. oerfota Schweinf. and A. etbaica Schweinf., both well represented in the Gebel Elba area . Pod segments and seeds of the Nile acacia have been found in Egypt from predynastic times onward. Today, the Nile acacia grows in the Nile Valley; the desert west of the Nile, including the oases; and in the Sinai. According to Zahran and Willis the Nile acacia probably also once grew in the southern areas of the Egyptian Red Sea coast. Its exploitation, rather than ecological factors, would have been responsible for its absence in this area today. As only fruits have been attested from the late habitation period, the most likely option is that they were imported from the Nile Valley or at least from a remote distant place. In a reverse situation, namely that the fruits found were only from early deposits, over exploitation of a nearby population could be considered.Twisted acacia can easily be distinguished from Nile acacia by its fruits, even if only small fragments are preserved. The former has small, spirally twisted fruits, which are only slightly constricted between the seeds and bear a clear veining pattern. Nile acacia, on the other hand, is characterized by more or less glabrous pods, which are deeply constricted between the seeds. Another difference concerns the spines that are present on the branches. Twisted acacia has both long straight spines and small curved spines, whereas Nile acacia has only long straight ones. Both straight and curved spines were found in the samples of Berenike and Shenshef. It has not been tried to distinguish between the two subspecies of twisted acacia, namely, ssp. tortilis and ssp. raddiana Brenan, which were formerly treated on a species level. The twisted acacia is a common species that grows in the midstream part of almost every wadi branch around Berenike. Leaves, young shoots, and especially fruits provide a valuable, nutritious forage for all domestic animals . Trees are browsed by passing camels and sheep as well as goats that eat the pods that fall onto the ground. Drar states that Ababda nomads pull down ripening fruits with long, hooked sticks. Another way of harvesting could have been cutting off whole branches that were fed to animals. The disadvantage of this kind of exploitation is, however, that it reduces the tree population, which in this arid environment cannot be compensated by regeneration. Today, the Ababda nomads mainly exploit A. tortilis by harvesting dead branches to make charcoal. Wood of A. tortilis has a high calorifi c value and is the leading supplier of charcoal. Exceptionally, fresh branches are cut to make the skeleton of small houses that are covered by skins or, as is practiced nowadays, by mats and cloth. The presence of seeds, fruits, and spines in many loci of Berenike cannot be explained unambiguously.