Month: July 2024

Although anthocyanin content was not affected, anthocyanin composition was modified by treatments from mid-ripening to harvest . Berry skins of ST and LRST grapevines showed a lower 3’4’5’/3’4′ ratio leading to increased proportion of cyanidins and peonidins in detriment of malvidins which was the most abundant anthocyanin found in berry skins . During the monitored period, different canopy management practices modified berry flavonol content . The berries from LRST grapevines showed the greatest berry skin flavonol content, while, at harvest, the flavonol content of LR, ST, and LRST was similar and greater when compared to the UNT content. Not only canopy management practices modified flavonol content but they also affected their composition. The LRST treatment had a higher proportion of kaempferol and quercetin from midripening to harvest and lower of proportion of myricetin after veraison . As expected, berry IBMP content decreased throughout ripening with all the canopy management practices tested in this study . However, we found the significant differences among treatments after veraison and at harvest. The LRST treatment resulted in the lowest IBMP content from mid-ripening to harvest. Correlation analysis between the monitored variables at harvest revealed a strong relationship between canopy architecture variables and berry flavonol content . Moreover,drainage for plants in pots canopy porosity was strongly correlated to the kaempferol proportion in berry skins . On the other hand, a lower yield due to canopy management practices was related to decreased IBMP and increased flavonol content .

Finally, a strong relationship was found between TSS and TA with the leaf to fruit ratio . Finally, a higher solar exposure estimated as the kaempferol proportion was strongly correlated with decreased anthocyanin berry contents and yield .Analysis of labor operations cost of canopy management practices indicated that the most expensive canopy management practices was the LRST where growers received a 53% lower income per hectare. Thereby, productivity data provided evidence that the cost of producing a kg of anthocyanin and removing a µg of IBMP was 10-fold greater in LRST compared to UNT per ha .Yield components were mainly affected by shoot thinning practices, decreasing the number of clusters and yield per vine leading to unbalanced vines according to the previous studies . Yield per meter of row is increased quasilinearly with the increase in shoot density per meter of row as indicated by previous studies . The lack of effect of LR on yield was corroborated by several studies when a late leaf removal was applied. Moreover, Yu et al. and Cook et al. reported that grapevines may produce more leaves than required, especially in warm climates, therefore, the increase in canopy gaps and the diminution of external leaf layers did not elicit decreases in yield as they were not severe enough reductions to the functional leaf area. The RI between 5 and 10 is considered optimum for vine balance . Therefore, RI and leaf area to fruit ratio data reported with the grapevines subjected to shoot thinning were under cropped that led to lower yields. In our study, Cabernet Sauvignon vines were not able to modulate their vegetative biomass in response to canopy management practices applied. Previous studies showed that pruning mass values up to 1 kg/m of row were considered optimal under warm climate . In our experiment the pruning mass per meter of all treatments ranged from 0.5 to 0.7 kg/m without differences between treatments. Moreover, although the shoot counts were obviously different between treatments, we did not find differences in the pruning mass, that suggested lower lateral expansion and/or reduced shoot diameter with an increasing number of shoots as previously reported Brillante et al. . Consequently, we found that the mass of each shoot ranged from 28 and 25 g in UNT and LR, respectively, to 45 and 42 g in ST and LRST, respectively, corroborating work by Brillante et al. .

Martınez-Lüscher et al. reported negligible variation of berry mass of Cabernet Sauvignon due to higher solar exposure under irrigated viticulture. Similarly, berry masses remained unaffected by a higher solar exposure of the cluster due to canopy management practices unless they were directly exposed to sunlight where berries may suffer dehydration as previously reported by Mijowska et al. . This has been attributed to the effect of the higher temperatures with subsequent increases in berry transpiration that affected cell division and elongation . Under our experimental conditions, shoot thinning treatments hastened berry ripening by enhancing the TSS to ca. 2.5°Brix and decreasing must titratable acidity by 0.6 g•L−1 at harvest. Thus, overexposure has been related with higher pH due to the elevated temperature that berries overcome and the subsequent organic acid degradation . Nevertheless, Wang et al. recently suggested that changes on the source-to-sink ratio induced by shoot thinning might have more influence on berry maturity than the change in the microclimate they reported.Cultural practices have been related to increased anthocyanin content . However, in agreement with other studies , under our experimental conditions, berry anthocyanin content did not increase due to LR, ST or LRST. Similarly, anthocyanin content was not affected by mild exposure in berries collected from the commercial vineyardeither. Increasing exposure was detrimental for anthocyanin content as the overexposed berries were subjected to higher temperatures that may have impaired their accumulation . The anthocyanin berry content at harvest is the result between synthesis and degradation rates. It was reported anthocyanin synthesis may be up-regulated by greater exposure . Therefore, ST and LRST increased the anthocyanin content at mid-ripening because of the increasing solar exposure . Additionally, it was recently highlighted that some members of the dihydroflavonol reductase and UFGT genes required for anthocyanin biosynthesis were moderately up-regulated in LR treated berries leading to increases of anthocyanin content at mid-ripening . However, at harvest, no significant effect of canopy management practices on anthocyanin content was found, and this result is corroborated by Pastore et al. who reported no beneficial effect due to higher cluster exposure in warm climates.

Although cultural practices may induce different cluster temperatures by increasing exposure, we did not find a clear relationship between exposure and cluster temperature when kaempferol proportion are low suggesting that results of this work were mainly explained by different exposures. Nevertheless, under elevated temperatures, a down-regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis and enhanced rates of degradation have been reported . Those authors suggested that high temperature induced anthocyanin degradation by enhancing the expression of VviPrx31 and consequently the peroxidase activity. Likewise, overexposed berries with kaempferol proportions greater than 10% were subjected to higher temperatures that dramatically decreased anthocyanin content. Matus et al. reported that flavonol content increased by two-fold in exposed berries compared to non-exposed. Our results corroborated this finding partially, depending on the level and duration of exposure, canopy position of the berries, and orientation of the vineyard. Therefore, when flavonol proportion was below 10% of kaempferol, flavonol content increased; but would decrease after this inflection point due to degradation. Matus et al. further indicated that this increase in flavonol may be driven by the up-regulation of MYB12 and flavonols synthase 4 due to the greater exposure suggesting that FLS4 could be a target of MYB12 in grapevine. Accordingly, Sun et al. found that increased accumulation of flavonols in light exposure berries, were accompanied by the up-regulation of several genes of the FLS gene family suggesting that they may be functionally redundant in response to light signal. During the experiment conducted in the 2019 growing season, the kaempferol proportion increased in LR and ST treatments,growing raspberries in pots but largest increase was measured when ST and LR were applied concurrently. Likewise, the higher the degree of exposure degree a greater kaempferol accumulation was observed during the 2017 growing season. The increase in kaempferol in total proportion of flavonols was accompanied with a concomitant decrease of quercetin and myricetin proportions. These results are corroborated with our previous work performed on Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. , and by others on Cabernet Sauvignon, Nero d’Avola, Raboso Piave, and Sangiovese in Italy . We previously reported the proportion of kaempferol was a feasible tool for accounting the solar radiation received by berry due to the greater canopy porosity and this corresponded to the 1930 W·m−2 of global radiation accumulated at the research site in Experiment 3. On the other hand, the higher proportion of quercetin derivatives in detriment of myricetin derivatives found in LR vines has been related to down regulation of F3’5’H family genes . Previous work on red grapevine berries, indicated that IBMP content decreased with greater solar exposure due to the canopy management practices during berry ripening . In our work, the lowest IBMP content was measured in LRST berries. Our results indicated a negative and linear relationship between leaf to fruit ratio and IBMP content. Conversely, the relationship between kaempferol proportion and IBMP was not significant. Therefore, our data suggested that the decrease of IBMP content was better explained by changes in the source-sink balance rather than differences in solar exposure. Likewise, Koch et al. provided evidence that solar exposure affected IBMP content to a greater extent when canopy porosity was enhanced before fruit set and not during berry ripening corroborating our results.

The lower berry IBMP content was explained by a diminution of the accumulation rates rather than increased rates of degradation due to canopy management practices and restriction of applied water between fruit set and veraison in a warm climate.Vineyard-fl oor management strategies, such as weed control and cover-cropping, have wide-ranging impacts both inside the vineyard, in terms of crop management and productivity, and outside the vineyard, in terms of runoff and sediment movement into streams and rivers. The increasing importance of water-quality issues statewide, including in Monterey County where the Salinas River drains into the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, highlights the need for management strategies that limit environmental impacts. Growers are interested in alternative weed-control practices and cover crops, but they need information in order to balance benefits with the economic realities of wine-grape production. We established a 5-year experiment in a commercial vineyard in Monterey County with the intent of identifying effective practices that can be integrated into the cropping system without negatively affecting winegrape production. The vineyard floor consists of two zones: the rows, a 2- to 4-foot-wide swath underneath the vines, which are managed primarily to control weeds by herbicide applications or cultural practices ; and the middles, interspersed between the rows, which are vegetated by cover crops or resident vegetation in the dormant season, and are tilled or left untilled in spring. Growers manage weeds in rows to reduce competition for water, nutrients and light , and to prevent tall-statured weeds such as horse weed  from growing or climbing into the canopy, where they interfere with harvest. Growers transitioning to more sustainable production systems need information on how management practices affect the physical properties, health, organic matter and water retention of soil. We monitored soil microbial activity for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and soil microbial biomass, since weed control and cover-cropping can affect populations of beneficial soil microbes in annual crops . Many California growers are also willing to plant cover crops because they protect soil from nutrient and sediment loss in winter storms , suppress weeds , harbor beneficial arthropods , enhance vine mineral nutrition and increase soil organic matter . Competition between vines and cover crops for soil moisture in spring, when both are actively growing, can lead to severe water stress and reduce grape production . However, wine-grape production is distinct from other cropping systems because water stress may be imposed to enhance wine composition ; this practice has been studied mostly in high-rainfall regions of California. The vineyard production region of Monterey County, in contrast, has low rainfall , and growers must weigh the benefits of cover crops with the possible need to replace their water use with irrigation. In addition, growers must decide on the type of vegetation to utilize in the middles. Resident vegetation is cheap and generally easy to manage. Cover crops can provide specific benefits such as nitrogen fixation or high biomass production and vigorous roots . There are many choices for cover crops in vineyard systems, ranging from perennial and annual grasses, to legumes . Each species has strengths and weaknesses, as well as associated seed and management costs.

However, for the control condition, results indicated that there was a significant difference between the explicit high and low blendedness groups on the harmony versus conflict IAT measure, t=-2.16, p=.034 . Similarly to the overall pattern of results, this result suggested that Mexican American participants who explicitly self-identified as being high in blendedness, implicitly self-identified weaker with harmony compared to those explicitly low in blendedness. Results further indicated that there were no other significant differences among the other three means analyses . In all, Study 2 offered an examination of BII through assessments of thoughts that cannot be consciously controlled. In particular, results indicated that the experimental manipulation did not work across both measures of BII. The overall effects for both the harmony vs. conflict IAT and the blendedness vs. distance IAT showed that the Mexican American participants implicitly self-identified stronger as being harmonious and blended biculturals relative to being more conflicted and distant biculturals. When examining the findings in regards to explicit and implicit BII, a mixed pattern of results begins to emerge. In particular, an explicit attachment to blendedness seems to account for a weaker implicit Self + Harmony association. This argument is corroborated by both correlational analyses which showed that the more Mexican American participants explicitly self-identified as being a blended bicultural,25 liter square pot the less they implicitly self-identified as being a harmonious bicultural and means analyses which indicated that Mexican American participants who explicitly self-identified as being high in blendedness showed an implicitly weaker self-attachment to harmony compared to those explicitly low in blendedness.

What is interesting is that both types of analyses were attenuated by the control group, which was void of any experimental manipulation influence. What is also interesting is the lack of correlations between the harmony vs. conflict IAT and the battery of explicit acculturation and outcomes measures. This was not the case for the blendedness vs. distance IAT. This IAT showed at least two significant correlations. In essence, the more Mexican American participants implicitly self-identified as being a blended bicultural, the less they explicitly prefer the separation strategy and the less they explicitly identify with U.S. culture. Taken together, these results showed the usefulness of using IAT methodology to examine the underlying dynamics of bicultural identity at an implicit level. However, a thorough discussion is needed to explain these data in light of theory which will be addressed in the following section. Study 1 examined differences in the strength of identification with both ethnic and mainstream cultures among multi-generational Mexican American college students using IAT methodology. That is, the extent to which Mexican American participants implicitly endorsed Berry’s four acculturation strategies using a 3 IAT design. In all, the results form Study 1 showed the usefulness of the 3 IATs design to examine implicit acculturation. Given that the Self + Mexican association was stronger than the Self + American association across all three IATs suggests that the Mexican American participants implicitly showed a stronger preference for the separation strategy relative to the other three acculturation strategies. This finding is particularly interesting given that using this type of methodology yields findings not only for an implicit bicultural identity as Devos found, but also for other acculturation strategies such as the separation strategy.

Another goal of Study 1 was to examine the differences between how familiarity and experiences may foster associations between the self and cultures. Recall that perhaps familiarity with the broadly defined cultures itself rather than identification with the cultures accounted for the obtained results found in Devos’s study. Devos studies did not include a battery of acculturation and outcomes measures in order to examine the familiarity versus experiential accounts and provide a more comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the acculturation experiences. However, the present research did undertake such an endeavor. Results from Study 1 showed that all three IAT measures were correlated with a variety of explicit acculturation and outcomes measures. For instance, the less Mexican American participants implicitly self-identified with American culture relative to Korean culture, the less proficient they were in using English, the more proficient they were in using Spanish, the more affirmation, belonging, and commitment was felt towards their Mexican identity, the less acculturative stress they encountered such as linguistic and work, the more they self-identified with their Mexican culture, and the less these participants were open to experiences. Furthermore, the stronger Mexican American participants implicitly self-identified with Mexican culture relative to Korean culture, the older the participants, the less they explicitly self identified with mainstream culture, and the more depressed they felt. In all, these patterns of results seem to go beyond the familiarity account and show that cultural experiences do help foster associative links between the self-concept and culture. Study 2 went beyond the realm of Study 1 and examined the underlying dynamics of bicultural identity at an implicit level. That is, the extent to which Mexican American bicultural college students implicitly negotiates or integrates their dual cultural identities into their self-concept. Overall, results indicated that the experimental manipulation did not work across both measures of BII.

Results for the implicit data further indicated that Mexican American participants implicitly self-identified stronger as being harmonious and blended biculturals relative to being more conflicted and distant biculturals. However, when examining the findings in regards to both explicit and implicit BII, a mixed pattern of results emerges. A very interesting find for Study 2 showed that an explicit attachment to blendedness seems to account for a weaker implicit Self + Harmony association. This argument is corroborated by both correlational and mean analyses. Though these results seem contradictory, they actually illuminate a very impressive and unexpected find. A further examination into these findings suggested that these results are not contradictory, but perhaps reflect a contrast between the implicit and explicit self-concepts among individuals varying in BII. Although the main experimental manipulation failed to work as a priming technique, the IAT may have served as a priming tool to elicit such an effect. In particular, the harmony vs. conflict IAT may have worked as a means of priming the Mexican American bicultural participants by exposing them to words that ignited the negotiation of their dual cultural orientations across two levels of awareness.According to social cognition research on priming, words can also be used to prime individuals in order to elicit a certain response . In the case of Study 2, Mexican American bicultural participants may have been primed with the pre-tested synonym words that represented the harmony vs. conflict dimension of BII and elicited a contrast effect. That is, the words that the bicultural participants were exposed to initiated the negotiation process of their dual cultural identities and subsequently resulted in a discrepancy between their implicit and explicit self-concepts. In essence, the explicit attachment to blendedness seems to account for a weaker implicit Self + Harmony association. Correlational analyses showed that the more Mexican American participants explicitly self-identified as being a blended bicultural, the less they implicitly self-identified as being a harmonious bicultural and means analyses further indicated that Mexican American participants who explicitly self-identified as being high in blendedness showed an implicitly weaker self-attachment to harmony compared to those explicitly low in blendedness. It is important to note that both of these analyses were attenuated by the control condition, which was void of the experimental manipulation influence . What was also interesting is the lack of correlations between the harmony vs. conflict IAT and the battery of explicit acculturation and outcomes measures. Finally,gallon pot when comparing the means of the harmony vs. conflict IAT to the blendedness vs. distance IAT, results suggested that Mexican American participants implicitly showed a significantly stronger self-attachment to harmony relative to the self + blendedness association. Social cognition literature provides some possible explanations for understanding why contrast effects occur. If a prime is perceived as incompatible with the target’s self concept then contrast effects emerge . For instance, priming participants with Albert Einstein which is often viewed as extremely different from most peoples’ self-concept led participants to fewer correct answers on a knowledge test versus being primed with a professor which led to more correct answers on the same test . In all, primes that are considered different from and inconsistent with the target’s self-concept in turn lead to contrast effects .

This literature is consistent with the three major implications of the self-concept. First, information about the self concept is processed faster and more efficiently, especially consistent information . Second, one retrieves and remembers information that is relevant to one’s self-concept. Third, one will tend to resist information in the environment that is inconsistent with one’s self-concept . Results from Study 2 suggest that any incoming cultural information that is in congruent with the biculturals self-concept may result in a contrast effect. When considering the influx of cultural information that affects a biculturals self-concept, it is important to remember the underlying mental processes in which cultural information is processed. Perhaps the incoming cultural information led the Mexican American biculturals to engage in the negotiation of their two cultural orientations at two distinct levels of awareness. Research on dual-systems model would support this notion. According to research on dual-systems model , cultural information can be processed implicitly, impulsively or associative versus explicitly, reflective, or propositionally. Cultural information that is processed implicitly or associatively is believed to represent the implicit self-concept and process information by the spread of activation between concepts that are associatively linked. The implicit self-concept reflects automatic responses which result from the particular associations that are triggered automatically when a person encounters a relevant stimulus . On the other hand, cultural information that is processed in the form of propositions is believed to represent the explicit self-concept and process information through introspection. The explicit self concept is best considered as evaluative judgments about the self-concept which stem from the processes of propositional reasoning . There are several important aspects of associative processes that underlie the implicit self-concept which are important to consider. First, pattern activation refers to the notion that the activation of particular associations in memory is dependent on the comparative fit between: 1) the preexisting structure of associations in memory and 2) the particular set of external input stimuli . In the case of Study 2, the comparative fit between the external stimuli and the implicit self-concept may have been strong enough to trigger the negotiation process between the participant’s dual cultural identities. Second, associative evaluations are best characterized as automatic affective reactions when a person encounters a relevant stimulus . Recall that the harmony vs. conflict dimension of BII is affect driven, thus is makes sense that it served as a relevant stimulus to activate the negotiation process in the participant’s implicit self concept. Third, associative processes are void of truth values, unlike propositioning reasoning, which means that they are often not personally endorsed by the individual . Therefore, if implicit evaluations can be activated regardless of whether a person considers these evaluations as accurate or not, then it is quite possible for inconsistencies to exists between the implicit and explicit self-concepts. In all, research on the dual-systems model helps to explain the obtained results found in Study 2. In particular, individuals varying in BII were exposed to cultural information that ignited the negotiation process of their dual cultural orientations within the self-concept, thus creating a contrast effect between their implicit and explicit self concepts. Collectively, the results of Study 2 and the research on culture, the self concept, and dual-systems model, have important theoretical implications for BII. Recall that BII is an individual difference variable that underlies the dynamics of bicultural identification. Research on BII theory showed that cultural harmony is more affect driven and interpersonal component of the bicultural experience, whereas cultural blendeness captures the more perceptual and performance related aspects of the bicultural experience. Thus, when a bicultural individual high on cultural blendedness perceives his or her self as apart of a combined culture, his/her self-concept is placed in proximity to both cultures and orientations . On the other hand, when a bicultural individual high on cultural harmony states that his/her ethnic and mainstream cultural identities are quite compatible, he or she is expressing rapport and compatibility between each cultural orientation and membership . To advance BII theory, the inherent properties that characterize each pair of BII dimensions can be further understood in regards to the dual-systems model. That is, the harmony vs. conflict dimension of BII tends to capture elements of the implicit self concept of the bicultural experience.

Southern California’s Coachella and Imperial Valleys are major production regions for a wide variety of winter vegetables. Fields in these valleys are typically fallowed during the summer due to high temperatures that preclude the production of most vegetables. Recently, researchers at the University of California, Riverside, in conjunction with Riverside County Cooperative Extension, the Indio USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and the USDA Agricultural Research Service in Beltsville, Maryland, developed a cover crop mulch production system for this region using cowpea , a warm-season legume. This system relies on the use of large, bush-type cultivars. The cowpea is seeded into preshaped soil beds in June and August. When the cover crop is chopped and converted into a mulch, the above ground biomass can be as much as 2,542 pounds per acre , providing a surface matte that has been shown to control weeds, reduce parasitic nematodes, and provide for vegetable yields comparable to the current bare soil production system. This cover crop mulch production technique has also resulted in increased soil carbon, which is an important management goal of producers in the region.With the increase of cross-cultural contacts worldwide, new types of ethnic/cultural identities start to develop and take shape for individuals. Most of this research has examined the cross-cultural influences on identity by asking individuals to consciously answer questions using self-report measures. What is less known is to what extent cross-cultural contact influences identity outside of conscious awareness?

Thus, the present research examined to what extent individuals implicitly incorporate cross cultural knowledge and/or experiences into their self-concept. Due to the limitations of self-report measures in measuring the self-concept,black plastic planting pots the current research used the Implicit Associate Test  to assess implicit representations of the self-concept. The IAT’s main purpose is to measure the relative strength of automatic associations between mental representations of concepts. In particular, Study 1 examined differences in the strength of identification with both ethnic and mainstream cultures among multi-generational Mexican American college students. That is, the extent to which Mexican American participants implicitly endorsed Berry’s four acculturation strategies using a 3 IAT design. Study 2 went beyond the realm of Study 1 and examined the underlying dynamics of bicultural identity at an implicit level. That is, the extent to which Mexican American bicultural college students implicitly negotiates or integrates their dual cultural identities into their self-concept. A phenomenon known as Bicultural Identity Integration The findings across both studies are consistent with Devos and with the image rising from modern research on acculturation and bicultural identity that individuals often find themselves immersed into multicultural surroundings and define themselves along numerous cultural boundaries and incorporate into their self-concept knowledge about a variety of cultures. An important innovation of the present research provided evidence for acculturation strategies and the integration of bicultural identities into the self-concept through assessments of thoughts that cannot be consciously controlled. That is, the results of both studies clearly demonstrated that at least under certain circumstances, cultural knowledge and/or experience can implicitly be incorporated into the self-concept.

In today’s world it is nearly impossible to avoid the technological marvels that influence our daily lives. For instance, a typical night for any American might consist of playing online poker with 5 people from various cultures from around the world, watching a news broadcast of events unfolding in the Middle East, receive a telemarketing phone call from a center in India, and playing video games on a Japanese Nintentdo WII system. Not to mention the internet, texting, instant messaging, email, and cell phones all allow us to directly communicate and interact with individuals in other cultures that are half way around the world. As technology grows, cultures from around the world that were once isolated from each other are now interacting with one another. Technology is just one of many effects of globalization. Other effects of globalization include economic and financial , political , ecological , legal , and cultural . Of particular interest are the cultural impacts of globalization. For instance, seeing a McDonald’s in Delhi or a Starbucks Coffee located in Beijing’s Forbidden City are blazing symbols of the wonders of globalization. Global brands such as McDonalds and Starbucks Coffee are considered icons and carriers of American culture, whereas the Forbidden City and Delhi are considered symbols and carriers of Chinese and Indian cultures. The key premise about the cultural impacts of globalization is that it brings diverse cultures together. This type of multicultural environment can potentially allow for individuals to define themselves along multiple ethnic or cultural boundaries. The truth about globalization is that it offers a much more mixed, complex picture that contributes to a rich tapestry of multicultural experiences and identities for individuals. Globalization-based acculturation has led individuals from more and more countries to become multicultural. Historically, globalization was driven by factors such as colonization and slavery with the intent of creating a homogenized society.

In contemporary times, globalization-based acculturation serves the same purpose but is driven by other issues such as immigration, speed of travel and communication, and transnationalism. The difference is that although globalization is nothing new, it is more pervasive today than ever before. There is no doubt that as globalization advances in the twenty-first century, intercultural contact is increasingly becoming a worldwide norm consequently having an affect on the individual. With the increase of cross-cultural contacts worldwide, new types of ethnic/cultural identities start to develop and take shape for individuals. Chen, Benet Martinez, and Bond argue that globalization-based acculturation stresses identity issues as a central psychological outcome of globalization for individuals who define themselves along multiple ethnic or cultural boundaries. As a result, the cross-cultural influence on identity has received a good amount of attention in psychology over the two past decades . Most of this research has examined the cross-cultural influences on identity by asking individuals to consciously answer questions using self-report measures. What is less known is to what extent cross-cultural contact influences identity outside of conscious awareness? In fact, recent advances in the field of implicit social cognition argue that self-related processes frequently occur outside of conscious awareness or control . Thus, the present research examined to what extent individuals implicitly incorporate cross-cultural knowledge and/or experiences into their self-concept. As such, by understanding the basic social cognitive principles that underline the cultural dynamics of globalization on identity will help to advance the psychological research on culture and psychology. The cultural dynamics globalization has brought about in the world today is met with both support and criticism. Globalization is a complex phenomenon and has many different meanings. One widely accepted definition refers to globalization as a process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures become integrated through a globe spanning network of communication and exchange . Proponents of the cultural impacts of globalization believe that it is a profoundly enriching process that opens minds to new experiences, removes cultural barriers, strengthens the cultural diffusion of human rights, and accelerates cultural change. Proponents further believe that globalization will bring about a multicultural global environment in which people from different nations and cultural backgrounds will be able to freely share their ideas and practices and respect, appreciate and accept those who are of different origins In contrast, critics of the cultural impacts of globalization argue that it will destroy local cultures and undermine people’s sense of community and ethnic/cultural identity. As a result, people will resist the shifting cultural dynamics of globalization and will ignite cultural movements to preserve local culture. Critics are particularly worried about the impacts global brands have on local cultures, such as the McDonalds in Delhi or the Starbucks Coffee shop located in Beijing’s Forbidden City . Globalization-Based Acculturation to Psychological Acculturation Whether one is a critic or proponent of the cultural impacts of globalization,black plastic pots for plants one notion that both sides can agree on is the widespread cultural influence globalization has at both a macro and micro level. This widespread globalization influence is often referred to as acculturation which according to Berry exists at two levels: 1) a group/cultural level and 2) an individual/psychological level . Group acculturation refers to changes that occur within a society or culture when two different groups come into direct continuous contact . After such contact, changes in cultural patterns within either or both cultural groups become apparent. Psychological acculturation refers to changes that take place in an individual as a result of continuous and direct participation in a culture-contact situation .

Thus, a linkage is sought between the acculturation of an individual’s group and the psychological acculturation of that individual. In the past, there has been debate as to how to conceptualize psychological acculturation; is the construct unidimenisional or bidimensional? There is a growing consensus that psychological acculturation is not a linear process of assimilating and acquiring the host society’s values and behaviors at the expense of giving up one’s original cultural or ethnic identity . Bidimensional models of acculturation suggest that identifications with different cultural orientations are not mutually exclusive . The bidimensional model refers primarily to immigrant and ethnic minorities who are engaged in maintaining or preserving ethnic cultural identity and are also motivated or allowed to identify with the host culture . When these two dimensions traverse they form four distinct acculturation strategies: 1) Assimilation depicted as a strong identification with the host culture while weakly identifying with one’s own ethnic culture, 2) Separation referred to as strong identification with one’s own ethnic culture while weakly identifying with the host culture, 3) Marginalization characterized by weak identification with both cultures, and 4) Integration described as strong identification with both cultural orientations . Bidimensional models of acculturation have been shown consistently to be more advantageous than unidimensional models across an array of domains . Psychological Acculturation and Social Cognition There has been a wealth of research in the field of psychological acculturation . Much of this research has relied exclusively on the use of questionnaires to examine acculturation at a conscious level, i.e., people consciously dwelling on their acculturation experiences when asked via questionnaire methodology. However, due to the fact that globalization is a constant influential force in our daily lives, the question arises: “to what extent is psychological acculturation experienced out of reflective conscious awareness?” Some acculturation researchers state that advancements within the social cognition framework may benefit research on issues such as acculturation . Furthermore, the dynamic constructivist approach may lead to fresh insights about the psychology of acculturation . To get a better idea of how psychological acculturation can benefit from the social cognition perspective it is important to define social cognition and understand how it works. Social cognition refers to how people interpret, analyze, and remember information about the social world . It is concerned with how people process social information and apply this information to social situations. One central concept within the social cognition literature is “schemas”. Schemas are defined as generalized knowledge mental structures about the physical and social world, and how people interact with others in particular situations and with different kinds of people . To best illustrate how schemas work, it would be useful to compare them to a building under construction. That is, imagine the infrastructure of an unfinished building as a generalized mental structure that provides the framework to fill in the gaps of information derived from the surrounding social environment. Individuals use schemas to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. They allow for individuals to have certain expectations and prior knowledge so that they can navigate daily life. Schemas which are often learned through experiences and socialization provide a sense of prediction and control and help guide attention. In essence schemas functions so as to allow for individuals to have an active construction of social reality . Schemas are organized in memory as associative networks of concepts. In social cognition, concepts represent persons, groups, and attributes. These associative networks are bidirectional relationships between pairs of concepts and are variable in strength. In the associative networks, similar concepts are clustered together. Strength of association is reflected as when a particular concept is activated and related concepts are activated as well.

For ancestors, GC was iteratively estimated by MK between each ancestor and cultivars within a focal population, starting with the ancestor with the largest MK estimated from A, deleting that ancestor, re-estimating the coancestry matrix , selecting the ancestor with the largest MK estimated from the pruned coancestry matrix , deleting that ancestor, re-estimating the coancestry matrix, and repeating until every ancestor had been dropped. We compiled GC, B, and do estimates for every founder and non-founder in the pedigree database . We identified four F. chiloensis, five F. virginiana, and 40 F.  ananassa founders in the genealogy of the California population . Cumulative GC estimates for the California population were 1.8% for F. chiloensis, 12.7% for F. virginiana, and 85.5% for F.  ananassa founders. Four of the nine wild octoploid founders of the California population were founders of the historic Ettersburg population that supplied genetic diversity for private and public sector breeding programs in California . The wild octoploid founders with the largest GCs were three F. virginiana ecotypes: “New Jersey Scarlet” , “Hudson Bay” , and “Wasatch” . Wasatch is the F. virginiana subsp. glauca donor of the PERPETUAL FLOWERING mutation that Bringhurst et al. transferred into F.  ananassa . The Wasatch ecotype appears in the genetic background of every day-neutral cultivar developed at the UCD.Similarly, we identified 26 F. chiloensis, 24 F. virginiana,plant pot with drainage and 490 F.  ananassa founders in the genealogy of the Cosmopolitan population . Cumulative GC estimates for the Cosmopolitan population were 4.6% for F. chiloensis, 14.1% for F. virginiana, 79.9% for F.  ananassa, and 1.4% for other founders.

Similar to what we found for the California population, the wild octoploid founders with the largest GCs were “New Jersey Scarlet” and “Hudson Bay” . The next largest GC was made by FC_071 , an F. chiloensis ecotype of unknown origin found in the pedigrees of Madame Moutot, Sharpless, Royal Sovereign, and other influential early cultivars . A significant fraction of the alleles found in F.  ananassa populations have flowed through a comparatively small number of common ancestors, each of which have contributed unequally to standing genetic variation . The most important ancestors are described as “stars” in the lexicon of SNA, and are either locally or globally central . Globally central individuals reside in the upper-right quadrant of the B  do distribution , where B is the mean of B and do is the mean of do—8.7-8.9% of the ancestors that were classified as globally central . Locally central individuals reside in the upperleft quadrant of the B  do distribution —11.8- 12.1% of the ancestors were classified as locally central . “Tufts,” “Lassen,” “Nich Ohmer,” “Howard 17,” and “Fairfax” were among the biggest stars, along with several other iconic, mostly heirloom cultivars, and all were either locally or globally central . Stars are “gatekeepers” that have numerous descendants , transmitted a disproportionate fraction of the alleles found in a population , have the largest number of interconnections in the pedigree, and are visible in sociograms as nodes with radiating pinwheel-shaped patterns of lines . Several of the latter are visible in the sociograms we developed for the California and Cosmopolitan populations. Stars have the largest nodes in the sociograms . We estimated and compiled GC statistics for every ancestor in the California and Cosmopolitan populations . The twenty-most prominent and historically important ancestors of the California and Cosmopolitan populations are shown in Table 2.

They include several iconic and well known heirloom and modern cultivars, e.g., “Tioga,” “Douglas,” and “Royal Sovereign” , in addition to “unreleased” germplasm accessions preserved in the UCD Strawberry Germplasm Collection, e.g., 65C065P601 . The latter is the oldest living descendant of the aforementioned F. virginiana subsp. glauca “Wasatch” ecotype collected by Royce S. Bringhurst from the Wasatch Mountains, Little Cottonwood Canyon, Utah . The “Wasatch” ecotype is a founder of every day-neutral cultivar in the California population and many day-neutral cultivars in the Cosmopolitan population with alleles flowing through 65C065P601 and the UCD cultivar “Selva” . GC statistics were ordered from largest to smallest and progressively summed to calculate the cumulative GCs of ancestors and the number of ancestors needed to explain p% of the genetic variation in a focal population, where p ranges from 0 to 100% . The parameter n100 estimates the number of ancestors needed to account for 100% of the genetic variation among k cultivars in a focal population . n100 estimates were 153 for the California population and 3,240 for the Cosmopolitan population. The latter number was significantly larger than the number for the California population because the Cosmopolitan population includes pedigrees for 2,499 cultivars developed worldwide, whereas the California population includes pedigrees for 69 UCDcultivars only . Within European countries, n100 ranged from 25 for Belgium to 342 for England . Within the United States, n100 ranged from a minimum of 367 for the southern region to a maximum of 444 for western and northeastern regions. Predictably, np increased at a decreasing rate as the number of GC-ranked ancestors increased . Cumulative GC estimates increased as nonlinear diminishing-return functions of the number of ancestors .

The slopes were initially steep because a fairly small number of ancestors accounted for a large fraction of the genetic variation within a particular focal population. Across continents, regions, and countries, eight to 112 ancestors accounted for 50% of the allelic variation within focal populations . The differences in np estimates were partly a function of the number of cultivars within each focal population. When np was expressed as a function of k, we found that the proportion of ancestors needed to explain p% of the allelic variation in a focal population was strikingly similar across continents, regions, and countries, e.g., the Western US population, which had the largest n100 estimate , fell squarely in the middle when expressed as a function of k . Breeding speed and pedigree-informed predictive breeding in cultivated strawberry SNAs of the pedigree networks shed light on the speed of breeding and changes in the speed of breeding over the past 200 years in strawberry . We retraced the ancestry of every cultivar through nodes and edges in the sociograms . The year of origin was known for 71% of the individuals. These edges yielded robust estimates of the mean selection cycle length in years . S was calculated from thousands of directed acyclic graphs, which are unidirectional paths traced from cultivars back through descendants to founders . Collectively, cultivars in the California population visited 27,058 PO edges, whereas cultivars in the Cosmopolitan population visited 155,487 PO edges. The selection cycle length means and distributions over the past 200 years were strikingly similar across continents, regions, and countries—S was 16.9 years/generation for the California population and 16.0 years/generation for the Cosmopolitan population . These extraordinarily long selection cycle lengths are more typical of a long-lived woody perennial than of a fast cycling annual ; however, the speed of breeding has steadily increased over time . By 2000, S had decreased to six years/generation in the California population and 10 years/generation in the Cosmopolitan population . The genealogy does not account for lineages underlying what must have been millions of hybrid progeny screened in breeding programs worldwide; e.g., Johnson alone reported screening 600,000 progeny over 34 years at Driscoll’s . Cultivars are, nevertheless, an accurate barometer of global breeding activity and the only outwardfacing barometer of progress in strawberry breeding. When translated across the past 200 years of breeding,pot with drianage holes our selection cycle length estimates imply that the 2,656 cultivars in the genealogy of cultivated strawberry have emerged from the mathematical equivalent of only 12.9 cycles of selection . Even though offspring from 250 years of crosses have undoubtedly been screened worldwide since 1770, 15.5 years has elapsed on average between parents and offspring throughout the history of strawberry breeding . Because genetic gains are affected by selection cycle lengths, and faster generation times normally translate into greater genetic gains and an increase in the number of recombination events per unit of time , our analyses suggest that genetic gains can be broadly increased in strawberry by shortening selection cycle lengths. Genome-informed breeding and speed breeding are both geared towards that goal and have the potential to shorten selection cycle lengths and increase genetic gains .

We reconstructed the genealogy of strawberry to inform the curation of a historically important germplasm collection, forensically identify the parents of individuals without pedigree records, authenticate the parents of individuals with pedigree records, shed light on the domestication history of strawberry, and retrospectively examine where we have been and how we got there. The reconstruction was greatly facilitated by the availability of outstanding SNP genotyping platforms , the development of an extensive DNA profile database to complement the pedigree database , and the application of robust and highly accurate diploid exclusion analysis methods for parent identification and pedigree authentication. We provided an open-source R code to support future parentage analyses in agricultural species. Our backward-facing genealogy study, in retrospect, yielded unexpected insights about the complex hybrid ancestry and breeding history of cultivated strawberry that should inspire future generations and guide where we should go from here. Our critical examination of historical selection cycle lengths was meant to be provocative and perhaps inspire the implementation of strategies for increasing breeding speed and accelerating the improvement of strawberry. We suspect that improvements can be achieved, at least in part, through changes in breeding schemes and the application of pedigree-informed predictive breeding methods. The open-source pedigree database we compiled should find broad utility in predictive breeding schemes and can be easily expanded and modified for specific breeding problems, other populations, and future analyses. Because of the depth and completeness of the pedigree records commonly available in strawberry, pedigree best linear unbiased prediction has the potential to increase genetic gains and enhance selection decisions, especially when combined with genomic prediction . The pedigree database we assembled will facilitate the application of pedigree-BLUP and identity-by-descent prediction of alleles and haplotypes , in addition to providing a solid foundation for expanding the genealogy over time.We are grateful to Clint Pumphrey, the manuscript curator of the special collections and archives of the Merrill-Cazier Library at Utah State University . Clint assisted the first author with acquiring and researching the laboratory notebooks and other records of Royce S. Bringhurst , a former faculty member and strawberry breeder at the UCD . The documents and photos associated with the collection yielded extensive pedigree records that were crucial for reconstructing the genealogy of the UCD Strawberry Breeding Program. We are equally grateful to Phillip Stewart, a strawberry breeder at Driscoll’s , for sharing copies of the UCB, pedigree records of Harold E. Thomas , a former faculty member and strawberry breeder at UCB from 1927 to 1945. Those pedigree records greatly increased the completeness and depth of the database for the early years of the University of California Strawberry Breeding Program. The authors thank Thomas Sjulin, a former strawberry breeder at Driscoll’s , for sharing the public pedigree records he assembled over his career. SJK and GSC thank Robert Kerner for the computer forensic analyses that recovered several hundred pedigree records for UCD individuals from an obsolete electronic database, thus preventing the loss of those records for perpetuity. They were critical for integrating the UCD genealogy with the global genealogy for cultivated strawberry. SJK especially thanks Rachel Krevans, Matthew Chivvis, Jake Ewert, and Wesley Overson for their integrity, friendship, and steadfast support.Table grapes have become an important fresh commodity in Brazil for both internal market and exportation. Over the period of 2000–2016, Brazil presented an increase of ∼150% in table grape production, reaching around 970,000 MT in 2016 . The northern region of Paraná state is one of the main areas of table grape production. The mild winter and subtropical conditions of this region permit two crops of grapes per year, which allow Brazilian growers to time their production to coincide with market windows of other countries and compete for more advantageous prices. However, in these subtropical regions, berry ripening and harvest often occur during the rainy season, which is not ideal for Vitis vinifera cultivars because excess rain and moisture compromise the overall quality of the berries . Therefore, Brazilian table grape production is starting to incorporate American and/or hybrid grape cultivars that are better adapted to warm and rainy climates.

Arguably, absolute microbial population densities are more important than the relative proportion, because these determine the absolute production rates and concentrations of metabolites and signals of microbial origins. Rates of production of fermentation products need to be measured as an index of microbial community function. Further research into the characterization and metabolic activity of the gut microbiota may provide the key to the influence of the environment on colonic health and disease. Integrating the gut microbiome data with clinical nutritional assessment, food consumption monitoring, and host phenotyping measurements in future investigations are needed to focus on the identification of metabolic impacts that mediate the effect of diet on gut microbiota as well as their synergistic effect on host immune function, metabolism, and homeostasis.The earliest cultivars of allo-octoploid garden strawberry originated approximately 300 years ago from spontaneous hybrids between ecotypes of non-sympatric wild octoploid species: Fragaria chiloensis subsp. chiloensis from South America and Fragaria virginiana subsp. virginiana from North America. Several additional wild octoploid subspecies have since been used as parents in breeding,large pot with drainage creating an admixed population of F. × ananassa individuals with genomes that are mosaics of phylogenetically and demographically diverse progenitor genomes.

While several subgenome origin hypotheses have emerged from cytogenetic, phylogenetic, and comparative genetic mapping studies, a complete hypothesis for the origin and evolution of the octoploid genome was only recently proposed with the publication of the “Camarosa” reference genome. Through phylogenetic analyses of the transcriptomes of all described extant diploid species, including four subspecies of Fragaria vesca, the putative subgenome donors found in the octoploid were identified as F. vesca subsp. bracteata, Fragaria iinumae, Fragaria viridis, and Fragaria nipponica. Edger et al. provided strong support for earlier hypotheses that F. vesca and F. iinumae were two of the four subgenome donors. Until the octoploid reference genome was published, the origin of the other diploid subgenome donors had remained unclear, although multiple hypotheses had been proposed. Liston et al.then reasoned that Edger et al.may have misidentified two of the progenitors due to bias from excluding in-paralogs in their phylogenetic analyses. To address this concern, Edger et al. developed a chromosome-scale assembly of the F. iinumae genome and reanalyzed the original data with in-paralogs. The revised analysis supported the original model that the genome of octoploid strawberry originated through successive stages of polyploidization involving four progenitor species: diploid × diploid → tetraploid × diploid → hexaploid × diploid → octoploid ancestor. In addition, the chromosome-scale genome assembly showed that the diploid subgenomes were not static building blocks walled off from one another. Rather they have dynamically evolved through homoeologous exchanges, which are well-known in neopolyploids. Homoeologous exchanges in octoploid strawberry were found to be highly biased toward the F. vesca subsp. bracteata subgenome replacing substantial portions of the other subgenomes.

However, homoeologous exchanges are not unidirectional. Although the chromosomes are architectural mosaics of the four diploid subgenome donors and their octoploid descendants, F. × ananassa is strongly allo-octoploid. Because the F. × ananassa chromosomes are complex admixtures of genes with different phylogenetic histories via homoeologous exchanges, Edger et al.developed a nomenclature that precludes oversimplified oneto-one assignments to a specific diploid progenitor. The F. × ananassa genome has not only been reshaped by polyploidization events, especially homeologous exchanges, gene-conversion, and selection , but by repeated interspecific hybridization in breeding that has resulted in the introgression of alleles from phylogenetically and demographically diverse F. chiloensis and F. virginiana ecotypes. At this point in time, the decades long debate among geneticists and evolutionary biologists about the origin of the F. × ananassa genome seems to have reached an initial zenith. Remaining disagreements might only be settled when chromosome-scale assemblies of the other hypothesized diploid progenitors are assembled and analyzed. Aside from the question of subgenome origin, what other evolutionary questions might be worthy of exploration at this juncture? First, while the four extant relatives of the diploid progenitors have been putatively identified, the history and timing of the intermediate polyploids remain poorly understood. When and where were the tetraploid and hexaploid ancestors formed? Are any of the known wild polyploids endemic to Asia descendants from these intermediate polyploids? Which subgenome is dominant in these polyploids? Second, a single dominant subgenome was uncovered in Fragaria × ananassa that controls many important traits including fruit quality. Just how deterministic is subgenome dominance? In other words, is it possible to resynthesize the octoploid with a different degree of subgenome dominance, or with a different subgenome becoming dominant? The answer to this question could have implications for genetic improvement of the cultivated species.Genotyping advances in strawberry have naturally followed advances in humans, model organisms and row crops.

The development of the Affymetrix Axiom® iStraw90 single-nucleotide polymophism genotyping array was a significant advance that enabled the facile production and exchange of genotypic information across laboratories with high reliability, minor amounts of missing data, and negligible genotyping errors. The ease-of-use, speed of analysis, simplicity of data management, and outstanding reproducibility of SNP genotyping arrays have been important factors in their continued adoption in strawberry and other plant species with complex genomes. Underlying computational challenges associated with genotyping by sequencing and other nextgeneration sequencing facilitated approaches have limited their widespread application in octoploid strawberry thus far. The challenges are similar across species, but obviously exacerbated in allogamous polyploids: uneven and inadequate sequencing depth, copy number uncertainty, heterozygote miscalling, missing data, sequencing errors, etc., all of which challenge the integration of DNA variant information across studies. As with the other DNA marker genotyping approaches reviewed here, the first GBS study in octoploid strawberry utilized the diploid F. vesca reference genome in combination with a phylogenetic approach for aligning, classifying, and calling DNA variants. Recently, Hardigan et al. whole-genome shotgun sequenced 88 F. × ananassa, 23 F. chiloensis, and 22 F. virginiana germplasm accessions. Strikingly, 80% of the short-read DNA sequences uniquely mapped to single subgenomes in the octoploid reference. Approximately, 90M putative DNA variants were identified among F. × ananassa, F. chiloensis, and F. virginiana individuals, whereas 45M putative DNA variants were identified among F. × ananassa individuals. An ultra-dense framework was then developed of genetically mapped DNA variants across the octoploid genome by WGS sequencing 182 full-sib individuals from a cross between F. × ananassa “Camarosa” and F. chiloensis subsp. lucida “Del Norte”. Large expanses of homozygosity within the commercial hybrid parent prevented complete end-toend mapping of all 28 octoploid chromosomes in F. × ananassa as was accomplished with the wild parent, further demonstrating the value of dense NGS data for understanding sources of genotyping and mapping challenges in the octoploids. As these WGS-GBS and GBS mapping results demonstrate, several NGS-based genotyping approaches should work well in combination with the octoploid reference genome. In summary, while the complexity of the octoploid genome has historically complicated DNA variant genotyping and genetic mapping in strawberry,square pot the chief technical challenges were addressed with: the development of a high-quality octoploid genome assembly; WGS resequencing of numerous octoploid individuals that shed light on the extent of intra- and inter-homoeologous nucleotide variation; identification and physical mapping of DNA variants across the octoploid genome; and comparative genetic mapping of the wild octoploid progenitors of F. × ananassa using SNPs anchored to the octoploid reference genome. DNA variants genotyped with different platforms and approaches predating the octoploid reference genome were independent and disconnected, resulting in the proliferation of linkage group nomenclatures, absence of a universal linkage group nomenclature, uncertainty in the completeness of genome coverage, and inability to cross-reference physical and genetic mapping information across studies, populations, and laboratories. The DNA marker sequences from many of the previously published mapping experiments were either not readily available or too short or nonspecific to enable unambiguous mapping to the octoploid reference genome. The one exception was the genetically mapped double digest restriction-associated DNA sequence markers described by Davik et al., which were used by Edger et al. for scaffolding the octoploid reference genome. Most F. vesca DNA probe sequences used to assay SNPs on the iStraw35 and iStraw90 SNP arrays were too short and nonspecific to unambiguously determine their physical marker locations in the octoploid genome. Hence, genotypes produced with these SNP arrays could not always be effectively utilized for genome-wide association studies or other applications requiring subgenome resolution.

Moreover, none of the previously published iStraw90 based genetic mapping studies have shared SNP marker genetic locations, complete genetic maps, or other critical enabling information needed to identify corresponding linkage groups across laboratories. These long-standing issues were resolved with the development of a new 850,000-SNP genotyping array populated exclusively with DNA variants and reference DNA sequences that unambiguously mapped to single homoeologous chromosomes in the octoploid reference genome. Using the 850,000 SNP array, a second array with 50,000 subgenome specific SNPs, including 5819 genetically mapped SNPs from the iStraw35 array was developed facilitating the integration of genetic and physical mapping information across studies. These new arrays provide telomere-to-telomere coverage and target common DNA variants within and among domesticated populations. Although the full set of iStraw SNP probe DNA sequences could not be unambiguously aligned to a single octoploid subgenome, the true physical position for 97% of the retained iStraw probes were identified using linkage disequilibrium with the newly developed SNPs probes anchored to the octoploid reference genome. Comparative mapping of SNPs in several wild and domesticated populations facilitated the integration of earlier linkage group nomenclatures and the development of a universal linkage group nomenclature substantiated by the observation of genome-wide synteny among diverse octoploid genetic backgrounds. These recent advances in genotyping and mapping are expected to have tremendous and immediate impacts on applied research in genetics and breeding of strawberry. But other research questions arise which have bearing on the utility of these new tools and resources, particularly with regard to diversity among genomes that is currently undescribed. For example, what large-scale structural variations exist in octoploid Fragaria germplasm? Recent advances in long read sequencing platforms resulted in significant decreases in costs and increases in read lengths and should soon permit inexpensive assessments of structural variants across the cultivated strawberry pangenome. On a smaller scale, what percentage of genes in cultivated strawberry exhibit presence–absence variation? Recent pangenome studies in plants have revealed that a significant proportion of gene content exhibits presence–absence variation. For example, nearly 20% of the genes in Brassica oleracea are found in only certain genotypes and are enriched with functions encoding major agronomic traits. This suggests that genes in strawberry will be missed when utilizing a single octoploid reference genome and genotyping resources based on that genome alone. To construct a useful pangenome, how many individuals need to be included to capture most variation in gene content? These questions will soon be addressed as additional octoploid genomes become available.For many years genome-assisted breeding in strawberry lagged behind agronomic crops and even many specialty crops. However, surveys conducted by the RosBREED consortium and funded by the NIFA Specialty Crop Research Initiative have documented the rapid rise in the use of DNA information in strawberry breeding in the last decade. In 2010, only 43% of surveyed strawberry breeders had employed DNA markers or other genomics-based tools. By early 2019, data on 12 of the 14 active strawberry breeding programs in the U.S. indicated that all but one of these 12 programs had used DNA information for at least one of four purposes. The most common application was for verifying the identity or better understanding the lineage of plant materials used in the program. Two-thirds of the programs had used DNA markers or other genomics-based tools to choose parents and plan crosses, and seven of the 12 had used DNA information for seedling selection. Two-thirds of the programs were involved in upstream research of direct relevance to their programs, e.g., creating or validating DNA tests of particular applicability for their plant materials and breeding goals. Some of these were onetime or infrequent applications; however, seven of the 12 programs reported using at least one application of DNA information “on an ongoing, routine basis” . Among the many breeding-relevant loci discovered in the cultivated strawberry genome, flowering, and fruit quality loci have been prominent, as would be expected in a high-value fruit commodity. These, include discovery of the locus controlling day-neutrality or PF and its subgenome localization as well as multiple loci controlling volatile compounds such as gamma decalactone, mesifurane, and methyl anthranilate. For uncovering disease resistance loci, quantitative trait locus mapping has been the most prominent approach.

The consortium operates under the umbrella of ALBA, a worker-supportive operation. This arrangement meets UC insurance, ordering, delivery, and invoicing requirements. When it comes to dealing with a pest infestation—especially of a native pest that can cause significant economic damage—entomologist Sean L. Swezey had some basic advice for his audience at the 2006 Ecological Farming Conference: “Don’t try to spray it into submission. Identify and enhance key natural enemies and get them chomping on it.” Swezey speaks from experience, but in the case of lygus bugs , finding specific natural enemies turned out to be a more complex undertaking than he had imagined. Although a number of lygus predators, such as big-eyed bugs and damsel bugs, occur naturally in the state, Swezey was interested in encouraging a particular type of natural enemy—a selective endoparasitoid that could help control lygus infestations in organic strawberry plantings. Insect endoparasitoids lay their eggs inside their insect host, usually when the pest is in the immature stage. When the parasitoid egg hatches, the developing parasitoid larva kills its host. Because they usually parasitize a narrow range of hosts, endoparasitoids are ideal tools for biocontrol programs. Swezey, an extension specialist with the Center for Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems ,nft vertical farming has spent years working on alternative cultural control techniques to limit lygus bug damage in organically managed strawberry crops. Finding an effective endoparasitoid to help control lygus populations would be an important biological addition to growers’ management options.

Yet when Swezey and visiting Italian researcher Gianumberto Accinelli from the University of Bologna began searching for a native endoparasitoid of lygus on California’s central coast, they came up empty. “Accinelli reared out literally thousands of lygus and didn’t find a single endoparasite,” recalls Swezey. “An insect like lygus that’s so widespread but has no endoparasitoids affecting the nymphal stage? It was perplexing to say the least.”some unexpected help in his search. “I ran into Charlie Pickett, a biocontrol specialist with the California Department of Food and Agriculture’s Biological Control Program. We started talking about some old scientific literature that described the genus Peristenus [a parasitic wasp] working as a biocontrol agent against the European tarnished plant bug,” recalls Swezey. Pickett had been rearing a parasitoid species of the Peristenus genus that he hoped would help control lygus bug infestations in California’s cotton crop. His research had led him to studies done in southern Europe, where a species very similar to Lygus hesperus infests alfalfa. This pest, the European tarnished plant bug, hosts two naturally occurring endoparasites—the hymenoptera wasps Peristenus stygicus and P. digoneutis. The latter had been successfully imported to the eastern United States where it controlled the tarnished plant bug, a pest of alfalfa. Peristenus wasps attack their prey by parasitizing the nymphal stage of the lygus bug. “The female wasp grasps the lygus nymph, then oviposits [deposits the egg] into a membranous area between two segments of the nymph’s body,” explains Swezey. The developing wasp consumes the nymphal host from the inside out, killing it before emerging as an adult wasp. “A female Peristenus can lay up to 60 or 70 eggs—usually one in each host—in its lifetime,” says Swezey. Working with Dominique Coutinot from the US Department of Agriculture’s European Biological Control Laboratory in Montferrier, France, and Ulli Kuhlman of CABI Bioscience in Switzerland, Pickett imported Peristenus stygicus and P. digoneutis for release in California’s Central Valley.

He was also looking for a cooler region to try and establish the endoparasitoid. “Central Coast strawberry plantings were an ideal study site,” says Swezey.With the help of UC Cooperative Extension farm advisor Mark Bolda, Pickett released the parasitic wasps in 2002 into native vegetation bordering a conventional strawberry operation in Monterey County. “The results were very exciting,” says Pickett, who was surprised to find that the wasps had parasitized 50% of the lygus nymphs collected near the release site—particularly since these were conventional strawberry fields subject to pesticide sprays. “At this point the wasps have most likely become established, and we’ll continue to monitor their spread in the region.” Ronnie Colfer of San Juan Bautista’s Mission Organics identified a second site at Harkins Slough for additional releases.In 2004, Swezey and Center research assistants Janet Bryer and Diego Nieto released both Peristenus stygicus and P. digoneutis into alfalfa plantings established at the Eagle Tree organic strawberry ranch of Pacific Gold in Prunedale . The research group had already conducted several years of field trials at the site, working with Pacific Gold’s Larry Eddings and Joe Valdez to incorporate the alfalfa as “trap crops” in the strawberry fields. These crops attract and “trap” pests such as Lygus hesperus in a concentrated area; ranch personnel then run tractor-mounted vacuums, or “bug vacs” over the strips of alfalfa to remove the lygus bugs. During the 2004 season, the researchers found that approximately 20% of the lygus nymphs they collected from the trap crop had been parasitized by P. stygicus. “We thought that was a big success,” says Swezey. “It told us that you can take the wasp, originally from southern Spain, put them out in this environment, and they successfully parasitize the pest.” The researchers were also surprised to find that 50% of the lygus they collected from a “control” strip of alfalfa 300 meters from the wasp release site had also been parasitized by the wasps. “We probably moved the parasitoid to that strip accidentally, or it may have been moved by the ranch workers or the vacuum machine,” says Swezey.

Nevertheless, the fact that the wasps became established in alfalfa so readily was good news for the research group. After the 2004 season the parasitoids successfully overwintered in the alfalfa plots and were present in the spring of 2005. “That told us that P. stygicus was established in the environment,” says Swezey. Data collected during the 2005 season show a clear “delayed density dependence” of the wasps and lygus population: when the number of lygus in the trap crop and strawberries went up, the parasitism rate by P. stygicus rose soon afterward , and the lygus numbers then dropped. By the end of 2005, parasitism of lygus nymphs in trap crops exceeded 60%. During the 2006 season, the research group will not do any additional wasp releases, but will collect lygus nymphs for analysis to see whether the wasp species continue to spread at the site. The combination of trap crop vacuuming and parasitoid releases has led to a year-to-year decline in average lygus nymph abundance at the Eagle Tree research site since 2003 . Swezey acknowledges that at this point he can’t tease out the effect of the parasites from that of the vacuuming effort in driving down lygus numbers. “In 2006 we’ll map the mean number of parasites against this trend of declining lygus numbers and try to see how much of the effect can be explained by parasitism.” Ultimately, Swezey hopes to convince strawberry growers to limit the use of bug vacs on their crops to critical mid season periods, and to increase the implementation of alternative controls such as trap crops combined with bio-control efforts. “I think vacuuming the whole field of crops to control lygus is counterproductive,” says Swezey. “It’s a lot of effort and I think it’s quite destructive of the beneficial insect community that could greatly help limit lygus damage in organic strawberries if it were conserved.”Interest in sustainable agriculture isn’t limited to the farm fields or grocery aisles—it’s also taking root in the classroom. Prompted in many cases by student demand, colleges and universities around the country are developing programs in organic farming, sustainable agriculture, and agroecology. Recognizing this growing interest, members of the Center for Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems and the UC Davis College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences and Student Farm teamed this past winter to develop the first national conference on post-secondary sustainable agriculture education. The conference drew over 140 students, faculty, staff and administrators from more than 50 national and international colleges and universities to the Asilomar Conference Center in Pacific Grove, California. Also attending were representatives from 15 state and national sustainable agriculture organizations. Conference attendees set their own agenda based on shared interests, brainstorming in more than 20 workshops on topics that ranged from how best to work across disciplines in developing curricula,vertical tower for strawberries how to develop and maintain institutional support for sustainable agriculture education and research programs, and how to incorporate student farms into education programs, to how to develop careers paths for students with interests in sustainable agriculture. According to Albie Miles, the Center’s curriculum developer and one of the conference organizers, “Many participants commented that the conference was very timely and that they had long recognized the need for a national meeting that would encourage inter-institutional exchange and collaboration between sustainable agriculture educators, researches, administrators and students.” Part of the conference’s outcome is an effort to assess the need for a national-level organization that will continue to address and promote sustainable agriculture as a field of study in higher education.

In this article we discuss the background of this effort, describe some highlights from the January conference, and offer ways to get involved in the ongoing work to develop and improve sustainable agriculture programs for post-secondary students. More information on the conference, including summaries of all the workshops, is available on the Center’s home page: www.ucsc.edu/casfs; click on the Education link and go to the Facilitating Sustainable Agriculture Conference link.Dating to the founding of the Student Garden Project in 1967 and the Agroecology Program in 1981, UC Santa Cruz has a long history of both experiential, apprenticestyle training in organic farming and gardening techniques, and more traditional academic courses in agroecology and sustainable agriculture. Building on this experience, members of UCSC’s Center for Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems have worked with other educators from throughout California since 2002 as part of the College Farms Sustainable Agriculture Educators Working Group, with support from the Kellogg-funded California Food and Fiber Futures project. “The focus of that work was on colleges and universities that have college farms,” says Miles. “As post-secondary educators, we wanted to discuss the needs that our programs shared and to develop experiential education curricula that would incorporate hands-on work and learning on college farms into academic programs.” The California group worked on a number of projects together, convened several meetings each year, and held workshops for the last three years at the annual Ecological Farming Conference. Realizing the need for an effort that served the broader sustainable agriculture education community, the California educators proposed the idea of convening a national, multi-day sustainable agriculture education conference. “In 2005 we conducted a survey of selected individuals and US institutions involved in sustainable agriculture education to assess interest in a national conference as well as to solicit input on the conference’s content,” says Miles. “The great majority of respondents from our initial survey strongly supported the idea of a national conference.” Miles, along with Mark Van Horn, director of the UC Davis Student Farm, and Damian Parr, graduate student in agricultural education at UC Davis, formed the conference steering committee. Both educators and students provided feedback on what issues were of greatest interest and concern . Colleagues at the Center provided the impetus for the use of Open Space Technology for structuring the event such that the content of the conference was determined by the needs and interests of the participants. Both graduate and undergraduate students played a significant role in the conference. As one of the primary conference organizers, Parr stressed the importance of developing the conference as a progressive “educational event” with a participatory, inclusive curriculum. Central to this principle was assuring students’ authorship in developing the conference program and outcomes. Parr, a member of the Center’s 1991 Apprentice class and a UCSC Environmental Studies/Agroecology graduate in 2000, notes that, “We facilitated a social learning process wherein administrative, faculty, and student cultures increased awareness of their respective needs and interests. Ultimately, the goal was to democratize knowledge and practice responsibility for what and how we learn about sustainable agriculture.” With the ongoing efforts to develop a more sustainable campus food system at UCSC , members of the Center’s social issues research group are interested in assessing student, staff, and faculty attitudes, concerns and support for a variety of food system issues.

Native to East Asia, Drosophila suzukii has been a major invasive pest of soft-and thin-skinned fruits since it was first detected in 2008 in North America and Europe and has been found recently in South America. Drosophila suzukii is highly polyphagous, being able to oviposit and/or reproduce in various cultivated and wild fruits. Its fast development and high reproductive potential can lead to explosive population increases and significant economic losses to crops. Though various management strategies, including behavioral, biological, chemical and cultural approaches, have been implemented to suppress D. suzukii populations and reduce crop damage, current control programs rely heavily on insecticides that target adult flies in commercial crops. Because non-crop habitats can act as a reservoir for the fly’s reinvasion into treated crops, area-wide Integrated Pest Management strategies that reduce population densities at the landscape level need to be developed for such a highly mobile and polyphagous pest. To develop area-wide programs, it is critical to understand how D. suzukii populations persist and disperse in the landscape as the season progresses. Many environmental factors, such as local climatic and landscape traits, may trigger the dispersal of D. suzukii populations to escape resource-poor habitats or unfavorable weather conditions. Landscape composition surrounding cultivated crops, such as forests and shrub vegetation, could act as sinks, sources,blueberry grow pot shelters or overwinter sites for the fly populations.

For this reason, the availability of alternative hosts could play an important role in sustaining fly populations and dictating their local movement patterns when favorable hosts are not available. Researchers have provided a better understanding of local D. suzukii population dynamics. Still, there are gaps that limit our understanding of the relative importance of different hosts for D. suzukii within some geographical regions. For example, the seasonal periods of host utilization and the importance of non-crop hosts within the agricultural landscape need to be understood to develop area-wide programs. In this framework, this study aimed to illustrate the temporal dynamics of host use by D. suzukii in California’s San Joaquin Valley, one of the world’s major fruit growing regions. Drosophila suzukii was first detected in California when it was found infesting strawberries and cranberries in Santa Cruz County in 2008. Since then, damaging populations have been recorded from cherries, cranberries, mulberries, raspberries and strawberries, mainly in the coastal or northern California fruit growing regions with relatively mild summer. In comparison, California’s interior San Joaquin Valley has hotter summers and colder winters, and while D. suzukii is collected in cherry, citrus, fig, grape, kiwi, mulberry, nectarine, peach, persimmon, plum and pomegranate as well as in non-crop habitats surrounding the orchards, reported crop damage has been mainly on cherries. Adult fly captures show two main periods of activity—spring and fall—and low captures in winter and summer.

The number of captured flies was positively related between pairs of sampled sites based on their proximity, but it was negatively related to differences in fruit ripening periods among crops, suggesting that fly populations might move among crop and/or non-crop habitats during the year. Though adult flies are captured in various orchard crops, it is not clear whether these fruits are vulnerable and serve as hosts. For example, the potential impact of D. suzukii on wine grapes in Italy was discussed by Ioriatti et al., who observed D. suzukii oviposition in soft-skinned berries, and, in Japan, some grape cultivars were reported as hosts for D. suzukii. In Oregon, Lee et al.  found that D. suzukii was able to successfully oviposit in some wine grape cultivars but that offspring survival was low , whereas other studies observed no or low levels of infestation of intact grapes in the field or laboratory. Some of the initial work in Japan reported that D. suzukii emerged only from fallen and damaged apple, apricot, loquat, peach, pear, persimmon and plum, but Sasaki and Sato reported that healthy peach fruit can be infested. However, in California, Stewart et al. reported that intact peach fruit are unlikely hosts. No doubt, many fruits with hard or hairy skin can be colonized if wounds are available to allow flies to oviposit in the pulp. In this study, we document the temporal patterns of host use by D. suzukii in California’s San Joaquin valley by sampling intact and damaged fruits of various crop and no-crop plants throughout the fruiting season. We evaluated the suitability of key fruits, including several unreported ornamental and wild host fruits as hosts for the fly, particularly focusing on the host status of grapes—considered to be a non-preferred host—and cherry—considered to be a preferred host. Wine grapes can contain uniquely high levels of organic acids that are important for producing wines less susceptible to microbial and oxidative damage and with more vibrant color.

The levels of acidity decrease as fruit are ripening, but they remain high throughout the ripening process. For this reason, we also examined the impact of tartaric acid concentrations on the fly’s fitness. For cherries, we examined the effects of cultivar and fruit size on the fly’s performance. We additionally monitored adult fly populations at different elevations—from the Valley floor east to the foothills and Sierra mountains—to determine if the fly is active at higher elevations during the hot summer when the fly populations were extremely low in the Valley’s agricultural areas. We discuss the implications of this information for area-wide management in the San Joaquin Valley. A total of 17 common fruits were sampled in a temporal sequence of fruit ripening, including twelve important crops , three ornamentals , and two wild host plants . Samples were taken from 2013 to 2015 at the University of California’s Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center, near Parlier, California and near Brentwood, California . Bitter cherry, Prunus emarginata Eaton , and the Cascara buckthorn, Frangula purshiana are endemic to western North America; these fruits were collected at higher elevations 1683 m near Shaver Lake, California . For all species, both intact fruit and damaged fruit were collected as available, as the fruit were at a susceptible ripening stage for D. suzukii oviposition. A total of 30–50 fruit were collected when at a susceptible ripening stage for each species, although the number of intact ornamental and wild fruits varied depending on the availability.Collected fruits were placed individually or in groups of 10–50 in deli cups and held under controlled conditions at the University of California’s Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center . Deli cups were covered with fine organdy cloth and fitted with a raised metal grid on the bottom to suppress mold growth. A piece of tissue paper was placed underneath the fruit to absorb any liquid accumulation. Emerged flies were collected every 2–3 d, frozen, and then identified as either D. suzukii or other drosophilids. Only those flies that emerged within 2 weeks following field collection were counted to exclude the possibility of second-generation flies.All laboratory studies were conducted under controlled conditions, as described above . A laboratory colony of D. suzukii was established from field collections of infested cherries at Kearney. The fly larvae were maintained on a standard cornmeal-based artificial diet using methods described by Dalton et al., and adult flies were held in Bug Dorm2 cages supplied with a 10% honey–water solution and petri dishes containing standard cornmeal medium sprinkled with brewer’s yeast for feeding and oviposition. Field-collected D. suzukii were introduced into the colony yearly to maintain the vigor of the colony. All tests used 1–2-week-old adult female flies that had been housed with males since emergence .To determine if D. suzukii can oviposit within and develop from damaged or rotting navel oranges , a single adult female D. suzukii was exposed to a whole fresh fruit, halved fresh fruit, rotting whole fruit,hydroponic bucket or halved rotting fruit for 24 h in the acrylic cage. To simulate the natural decay process of a fallen orange, fresh oranges were placed individually on wet sandy soil in deli cups until the fruit started to rot. The halved fruit were allowed the same amount of time as the whole fruit but were cut into halves just prior to the test. On average, rotted fruit had 42.3 ± 7.3% of their surface covered by mold growth. Following exposure, the numbers of eggs laid were counted, and the fruit was then held in the cage until the emergence of adult flies. Each treatment started with 25 replicates; however, a few replicates were discarded because of contamination by other drosophilids that likely occurred during the regular examination for the decay status of the fruit. A sub-sample of 10 fruit was measured to determine the Brix levels of fresh and rotting fruits.

To determine the possible effect of tartaric acid on D. suzukii survival and development, seven different concentrations of tartaric acid were mixed with a standard artificial diet. The powdered tartaric acid was purchased from a wine and beer brewing store in Fresno, CA, USA, and mixed with the diet just before the diet solidified. The content of tartaric acid in grapes can vary depending on cultivar, ripeness, and environmental conditions; for example, Kliewer et al. reported a tartaric acid content ranging from 3.7 to 13.2 g/L in different cultivars and from 3.4 to 9.2 g/L in early- vs. late-harvested cultivars. The doses used here covered these reported ranges. Each treatment had 20–22 replicates, and each replicate started with 10 D. suzukii eggs from the laboratory culture that were placed in drosophila vials over the diet. The number of developed adults was recorded. A sub-sample of 25 pupae from each treatment was measured for pupal length and width , and the volume of each pupa was estimated based on the formula 2. Apple cider vinegar traps were used to monitor fly populations at four different elevations from the Valley’s low agricultural areas to the Sierra Nevada: Kearney , lower foothills , higher foothills and Sierra mountains . Traps at Kearney were placed in a mixed stone fruit orchard; traps at the three higher elevations were along Highway 168, with the foothill sites in residential yards with fruit trees and the Sierra site at the forest’s edge in bitter cherry bushes. Three traps were placed at each location, approximately 200 m apart. Collection methods were similar to Wang et al.. Briefly, traps were constructed of plastic containers filled with apple cider vinegar and a small amount of Bon-Ami Free and Clear® unscented soap to serve as a surfactant. Traps were hung on tree branches at head-height and then checked and replaced weekly from June to November 2017. Captured arthropods were placed into 95% ethanol in small glass bottle and later examined under a dissecting microscope to count the number of D. suzukii.For host suitability tests, since fruit varied in weight, the percentage of D. suzukii eggs that successfully developed to adults was calculated based on eggs per gram fruit to standardize the comparison among different treatments. The egg density effect on the percentage of eggs developed to adults in cherry was analyzed using linear regression. The percentage of eggs that successfully developed to adults on different fruit species or different cherry cultivars were subject to further analysis of generalized linear model with binomial distribution and log-link function by considering the effect of both fruit species or cultivar and egg density per gram fruit, as well as the interactions of these two factors. To separate the means among different treatments, the percentage data were also arcsine transformed as needed to normalize the variance and analyzed using ANOVA. All analyses were performed using JMP V13 . A separate analysis with 10 different cherry cultivars did not yield a significant effect of the Brix on the percentage of eggs that successfully developed to adults, although we could not rule out the possibility that Brix and other chemical properties may affect other fitness parameters of the developed flies. Many of the differences in chemical traits among different fruits could be attributed to geographic location and differences in environmental and cultivation conditions rather than inherent varietal properties, such as in cherries. In the current study, chemical differences were controlled to some extent, as cherry cultivars used were grown in the same plot with the same fertilization and irrigation regimes. The physical properties of different cultivars did not seem to affect the fly’s oviposition.

The facility will then either have one or several transformers in place to take in the energy, while also ensuring the power coming in is of the right voltage and the right type of current typically. Some data centers supplement their energy from the grid or completely remove it by on-site electrical generation equipment -either in the form of combustion-based generators or with alternative energy sources such as solar photovoltaic panels and wind-powered turbines. The power then gets transferred to the main distribution boards which house fuses, circuit breakers, and ground leakage protection units, take the low-voltage electricity and distribute it to a number of UPS systems. UPS are responsible for supplying power to a number of racks while helping clean up the electricity pulsing through by ensuring that issues like surges don’t impact equipment. UPS systems also serve as an initial backup, in case of a power outage or similar issue. In a nutshell, a UPS battery turns on after the system senses a loss of power. Their purpose is to maintain the infrastructure until consistent power returns, or if needed, until longer-term emergency power backup systems kick in. A typical UPS can provide power to servers and breakers for up to five minutes; that way, there’s enough time to get a backup generator going immediately following an outage or similar issue with the wider electric grid. In order to ensure continuous uptime and minimize outages as much as possible,nft hydroponic system most data centers have a backup power source on site or nearby. Often backup power supply comes from a fuel generator powered by gasoline or diesel.

In a data center, not only servers and other critical pieces of IT equipment require a lot of electricity to operate, but also all of the ancillary equipment. Lights, cooling systems, monitors, humidifiers, etc. also need electricity. The amount of electricity that goes towards servers versus non-IT equipment is called Power Usage Efficiency score which measures usage effectiveness. A score of 1 means that all the energy in a data center goes towards servers, while a score of 2 means that ancillary equipment uses just as much electricity as servers and other IT components . The Uptime Institute survey shows that the average PUE of a data center stands at 1.58. The average PUE for a Google data center is 1.12, but its facility in Oklahoma had a score of just 1.08 during the last three months of 2018. Today, the average power consumption for a rack is around 7kW depending upon the data center. However, almost two-thirds of data centers in the US experience higher peak demands, with a power density of around 15kW to 16kW per rack. Some data centers may hit 20kW or more per rack at times. The Uptime Institute’s latest survey found that around one in five have a density of 30kWor higher, indicating the growing presence of high-density computing. Half said their current rack density was between 10kW and 29kW. One of the most critical challenges associated with increasing power density within data centers is cooling. Alternative cooling technologies and methodologies such as liquid cooling, use of solar and wind for power cooling systems are being developed against that need. One of the largest operational expenses of data centers is the cost of energy. Cooling power consumption accounts for up to 40% of data center energy use. The original American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers air temperature envelope was 20-25℃ in 2004 based on reliability and uptime as the primary concern. Nowadays, changes to data center environmental conditions are being driven by the need to save energy and reduce operational expenses.

From 2016, ASHRAE recommended range of temperature and humidity is 18˚C to 28˚C dry bulb temperature, 9˚C to 15˚C dew point and 60% relative humidity. The Uptime Institute, however, recommends an upper limit of 25˚C. There are different common ways of to remove excess heat in data centers as shown in Figure 5.A Computer Room Air Handling is similar to a chilled water air handling system. In this system, the cooling is accomplished by blowing air over the cooling coil filled with the chilled water. The chilled water is typically supplied to the CRAHs by an electric powered chiller. The chiller then removes the heat from the warmer chilled water and transfers it to another stream of circulating water called condenser water which flows through a cooling tower. These CRAHs can have Variable Frequency Drives that modulate fan speed to maintain a set static pressure either under floor or in the overhead ducts. Heat removed from the returning chilled water can be rejected to a condenser water loop for transport to the outside atmosphere or to an air-cooled condenser, or to a glycol cooled chiller. A CRAC unit works like an air conditioner which has an in-built direct expansion refrigeration cycle. The compressors which are required to power the refrigeration cycle is also located within the CRAC unit. Thus, the cooling is accomplished by blowing the air over the cooling coil filled with refrigerant. Heat from the IT environment is pumped to the outdoor environment using this circulating flow of refrigerant. New CRAC units are developed that can vary the airflow with the help of multistage compressors. However, most of the existing ones have on/off control only. Modern data centers try to use adiabatic direct air cooling whenever the weather conditions allow. The common types of cooling are as follows: Free Cooling: Free cooling is an approach for cooling the air temperature in the target environment by using ambient cool air or water from the local environment instead of mechanical refrigeration. In this method, pumps, fans, and other air/water-handling equipment are needed. Cooling systems that use this approach are also called air-side economizers. The primary method is evaporative cooling, where ambient air is passed through a wet filter that cools it. The air then enters the cooling system at a lower temperature, which allows for more efficient operation. Evaporative assist is most beneficial in dry climates.

Alternatively, in water side economizer a source of cold water from local rivers, lakes or oceans is circulated into a data center and used instead of refrigerating a closed water loop with a chiller. Evaporative assist is an adiabatic cooling system which does not have heat exchange to the environment. Adiabatic cooling incorporates both evaporative and air cooling into a single system. An indirect ambient air cooling system uses outdoor air to indirectly cool data center air when the temperature outside is lower than the temperature set point of the IT inlet air, resulting in significant energy savings. Fans blow cold outside air through an air-to-air heat exchanger which in turn cools the hot data center air on the other side of the heat exchanger, thereby completely isolating the data center air from the outside air. Heat exchangers can be of the plate or rotating type. Heat removal method normally uses evaporative assist whereby the outside of the air-to-air heat exchanger is sprayed with water which further lowers the temperature of the outside air and thus the hot data center air. Indirect adiabatic data center cooling: The indirect adiabatic cooling consists of two different airflows named primary and secondary airflow as shown Figure 6. Primary airflow is the airflow that is used to cool the IT load. The secondary airflow is the outside or the ambient air which is used to discharge the IT load of the primary airflow. The primary airflow and secondary airflow are completely separated from each other because mixing them will create pollution and inconsistencies. During warm days water is sprayed on the heat exchanger to increase the cooling capacity of the secondary airflow according to the physical laws of psychrometrics. The water also provides a better conductivity between the two airflows by optimizing the energy transfer. Most units require a basic water softening system to produce the required water. A water storage tank is required to store a certain amount of water in case of water outage from the main water connection. There are basically two operating modes, Summer/wet: If conditions are not met for the secondary airflow, the air is humidified by adding a specific amount of water to the secondary air flow to increase its cooling capacity. In addition to these adiabatic cooling systems, direct expansion cooling systems ,hydroponic nft system powered by electricity, may be required in specific locations to reach the cooling demand of the data center. Winter/dry: Primary airflow transfers its heat towards the cooler secondary airflow without the requirement of water.

The indirect adiabatic cooler is known for its high energy efficiency reaching a cooling PUE of 1.05 at a single moment. There are three basic approaches for distributing air in a data center: flooded, targeted, and contained. In a flooded supply and return air distribution system, the only constraints to the supply and return air flow are the walls, ceiling, and floor of the room. This leads to heavy mixing of the hot and cold air flows. In a targeted supply and return air distribution system, a mechanism directs the supply and return airflow within 3m of the IT equipment intake and exhaust. In a contained supply and return air distribution system, the IT equipment supply and return air flow is completely enclosed to eliminate air mixing between the supply and the return air streams. Hot aisle/cold aisle arrangements lower cooling costs by better managing airflow, thereby accommodating lower fan speeds and increasing the use of air-side or water-side economizers. When used in combination with containment, Department of Energy estimates reduction in fan energy use of 20% to 25%. Another data center cooling technique is open bath immersion cooling which implies fully submerging IT equipment in a dielectric liquid. These baths allow the coolant fluid to be moved through the hardware components or servers submerged in it. Single phase immersion requires circulation of the dielectric liquids by pumps or by natural convection flow. These liquids always remain in the liquid state while operating. The dielectric coolant is either pumped through an external heat exchanger where it is cooled with any facility coolant, or the facility coolant is pumped through an immersed heat exchanger, which facilitates heat transfer within the dielectric liquid. In two-phase immersion systems, heat is removed through the phase change that the coolant undergoes at its operating temperature. The server heat literally boils the dielectric fluid that has an appropriate boiling point temperature. This two-phase immersion system takes advantage of the dielectric fluid latent heat of vaporization. This occurs when the two-phase coolant comes in contact with the heated electronics in the bath that are above the coolants boiling point. Once the two-phase coolant enters its gas phase it must be cooled or condensed, typically through the use of water-cooled coils placed in the top of the tank. Once condensed the two-phase coolant drips back into the primary cooling tank. The two-phase coolant in the tank generally remains at its “saturation temperature”. Energy transferred from the servers into the two-phase coolant will cause a portion of it to boil off into a gas. The gas rises above the liquid level where it contacts a condenser which is cooler than the saturation temperature. This causes the gaseous state coolant to condense back into a liquid form and fall back into the bath. In order to safely submerge an electronic device in a liquid, the liquid must be non-conductive to avoid short-circuit electronic signals or change in the signal characteristics of sensitive, high-speed electronic devices, such as Central Processing Unit s and memory modules. The liquid must also be completely noncorrosive and avoid any sort of damage to electronic packaging, contacts, or printed wet or dry circuit layouts. The liquid must be nonflammable, nontoxic, and easy to clean up if there is a spill. Immersion cooling mainly work in baths of mineral oil, and companies that have developed liquids such as Novec, which meet the criteria for electronic immersion cooling.Fuel cell devices are capable of converting fuel directly into electricity without the need of turbines or any major moving parts. The following section discusses how fuel cells work and some of the motivating principles behind their operation. Hydrogen is the most basic fuel used in the fuel cell electrochemical reactions, but fuel cell systems can operate on a wide variety of fuels. All fuel cells also require an oxidant, which is usually oxygen taken from air.

We can also more accurately estimate historic yield losses now that more is known about SWD biology, its spread, and the efficacy of different management techniques. Lastly, we can now incorporate increases in labor costs into these SWD management cost estimates. This analysis has two components. First, we utilize recent estimates of SWD-induced yield losses in the California raspberry industry to calculate industry-level revenue losses for both organic and conventional raspberry producers. Second, we revise prior estimates of SWD management costs to reflect the cost of modern organic and conventional chemical management programs and the increased labor costs resulting from the presence of SWD.Prior estimates of SWD-induced revenue losses were based on the maximum observed yield losses in different industries where SWD infestations occurred. These estimates provide information about SWD’s damage potential, but do not yield an accurate estimate of actual SWD crop damage. Actual crop damage is useful for estimating revenue losses due to SWD and will differ by year and production style. This analysis incorporates field trial results and expert opinions to estimate SWD-induced revenue losses for the California raspberry industry. SWD infestations directly reduce raspberry yields in two ways. First, fruit infested by SWD decay more quickly. These yield losses are difficult to attribute to SWD because the initial infestation is difficult to detect, and the accelerated decay has a similar appearance to decay caused by fungal diseases, bacteria, and yeasts. Second,stacking pots raspberry shippers that detect SWD infestations may reject the entire delivery from the grower.

Fresh fruit are held to rigorous quality standards. The risk of rejection of an entire delivery incentivizes growers to eliminate all visible defects in harvested fruit. SWD infestations are more prevalent late in the year as the population grows until winter weather reduces the population.Further, raspberry production is fairly concentrated geographically and the leftover, overripe fruit from nearby fields’ summer harvest acts as a breeding ground for SWD. SWD infestations are also more prevalent in fruit destined for the processing market, where the price is lower than in the fresh market. Fruit intended for processing are harvested later in the season, tend to be riper because they are harvested less frequently, and receive less frequent pesticide treatments. SWD damage rates could change significantly in the future due to pesticide resistance development and the introduction of new SWD management practices, including introducing biological control agents. Recent studies in the US and Europe found that indigenous parasitoids had limited effect on SWD populations. However, in Asia, where SWD originates, several endemic parasitoids attack and develop from SWD.We begin by examining SWD-induced yield losses in California’s conventional raspberry industry. The original reports of SWD damage in the raspberry industry indicated that as much as 50% of production could be lost if SWD was left unmanaged.Yield losses of this magnitude occurred as raspberry producers first learned how to manage SWD, but are now uncommon due to implementation of extensive academic research and industry experience. According to private communications with conventional raspberry producers, they have managed to reduce SWD induced yield losses to less than 3% of production.

In recently published reports, conventional raspberry producers that employ effective chemical management programs face virtually no yield losses due to SWD.18,26 This substantial reduction in yield losses is primarily attributable to two factors. First, conventional raspberry producers have access to cheap and effective chemical management options.Second, these producers are harvesting their crop more frequently in order to reduce the amount of time raspberries are susceptible to infestation. These observations of actual SWD-induced yield losses are consistent with field trial observations as well. Entomologists Kelly Hamby and Frank Zalom monitored traps and evaluated fruit samples for damage between October 2010 and December 2012 in both organically- and conventionally-managed raspberry sites. Analyzing the 40-fruit samples collected from these fields resulted in estimated yield loss observations for raspberry producers employing standard management practices at the time. SWD-induced yield losses for conventional producers in the study were estimated to be approximately 10% of production in 2011 and less than 1% in 2012. These estimated yield losses are consistent with those observed by De Ros et al. in Italy between 2011 and 2013. De Ros et al. estimated raspberry losses of 11.5% prior to i and 3.24% after the implementation of an integrated strategy. The yield losses observed in the UC Davis study were concentrated in the fall harvest.The summer harvest is hypothesized to experience less SWD pressure because the population grows throughout the year until cold weather arrives and lack of host fruit in the winter significantly reduces population levels. SWD biology and infestation intensity is affected by climatic conditions and the availability of host fruit, implying that different climatic conditions and influences of neighboring crops could significantly impact SWD-related yield losses.

On the other hand, organic raspberry producers still face significant SWD-induced yield losses. Private communications with raspberry producers indicate that these producers experience yield losses between 5% and 15% of production due to a lack of efficacious chemical treatments approved for organic use, and the efficacy and high cost of other labor-intensive SWD management practices. Once again, these field observations are consistent with the yield losses measured in field trials. SWD-induced yield losses for organic raspberry producers in the study were estimated to be approximately 12% of production in both 2011 and 2012. We calculate yearly estimates of industry-level revenue losses using these observed yield losses due to SWD and a procedure similar to Goodhue et al. . First, we assume an ownprice elasticity of demand for raspberries of -1.66. This elasticity value is the value estimated for fresh raspberries by Sobekova, Thomsen, and Ahrendsen .Second, we assume that actual yield losses in the California raspberry industry correspond to the yield losses observed in the field trials. Specifically, we assume that SWD-induced yield losses between 2009 and 2011 correspond to the yield losses observed in 2011, and that losses after 2011 correspond to the yield losses observed in 2012. Raspberry production and price data are obtained from the U.S. Census of Agriculture and various National Agricultural Statistics Service surveys.Table 2 provides the resulting revenue loss estimates organized by production practice and year grouping. California’s conventional raspberry producers faced a total of $36.1 million in revenue losses due to SWD between 2009 and 2011. These estimated revenue losses are equivalent to 4.62% of realized revenues over the same period. After 2011, effective SWD management techniques in conventional production eliminated virtually all revenue losses. Revenue losses due to SWD between 2011 and 2014 are estimated to be $277 thousand, which is less than 1% of realized revenues over the same period. In total, California’s conventional raspberry producers faced $36.4 million in revenue losses due to SWD between 2009 and 2014. California’s organic raspberry producers faced a total of $3.43 million in revenue losses due to SWD between 2009 and 2014. These estimated revenue losses are equivalent to 5.74% of realized revenues over the same period. Revenue losses of this magnitude are expected to continue in organic raspberry production until more effective chemical, cultural, or biological management programs are discovered. Furthermore, revenue losses incurred by organic raspberry producers could potentially increase dramatically if SWD populations develop greater resistance to the current, limited set of chemical controls approved for organic use.SWD management is multifaceted. In addition to yield losses,nft hydroponic managing SWD has significantly increased production costs for raspberry producers. Raspberry growers increase the number of insecticide applications and use additional labor to harvest their crop in response to SWD infestation pressure. These necessary insecticide applications require additional chemical purchases and access to sprayers and specialized equipment through custom application or purchase. Overuse of pesticides can lead to rejections of shipments if residues exceed legal tolerances for the chemicals; however, producers who adhere to mandatory label rates should, theoretically, never encounter this problem. Conventional raspberry producers have access to a variety of insecticides that provide excellent control for SWD populations at present. Raspberry growers observed in the UC Davis study discussed earlier applied SWD-targeting insecticides four to six times for both the fall and spring harvests. The most commonly used insecticides for this purpose were spinetoram, zetacypermethrin, and malathion.

Assuming these chemicals are applied at their maximum label rates and with generic purchase prices observed in 2015, the per hectare material costs of these insecticide applications are $179.40, $7.22, and $29.78, respectively. Using a conventional raspberry grower observed in the UC Davis study as a point of reference, an example chemical management program included two applications of spinetoram and a combined application of zeta-cypermethrin and malathion in both the fall and spring harvest seasons. Each application is estimated to have labor and equipment costs of $61.78 per hectare.In 2015, such a program would cost an estimated $581.14 per hectare in both the fall and spring harvests for a total cost of $1,161.28 per hectare for a single planting. This is consistent with the per hectare treatment program cost of $825.33 observed in Goodhue et al in 2011. Even though conventional raspberry producers have developed effective chemical management programs that virtually eliminate fruit losses due to SWD, organic producers still experience non-trivial yield losses due to more expensive and less effective insecticide options.Most California organic raspberry producers used only two SWD-targeting insecticides, spinosad and pyrethrin, during the time of this study. Of these two insecticides, only the organic formulation of spinosad has efficacy comparable to conventional insecticides.Spinosad applications are more expensive than conventional insecticides and organic growers are limited by its labeled use of two consecutive applications followed by rotation to a product containing another class of insecticide for resistance management. It is typically applied in conjunction with spinosad or other organic insecticides because it does not provide sufficient control on its own. Assuming spinosad and pyrethrin are applied at their maximum label rates and with generic purchase prices observed in 2015, the per-hectare material costs of these insecticide applications are $200.60 and $119.13, respectively. In the UC Davis study, organic raspberry growers were observed applying these insecticides between five to nine times for each seasonal raspberry harvest. Using an organic raspberry grower observed in the UC Davis study as a point of reference, a typical chemical management program included five applications of pyrethrin in the fall, three of which were applied in conjunction with spinosad, and six applications of pyrethrin in the spring, two of which were applied in conjunction with spinosad. Assuming the stated per-hectare material, labor, and equipment costs, such a program would cost an estimated $1,506.35 per hectare in the fall and $1,486.66 per hectare in the spring for a total cost of $2,933.01 per hectare for a single planting. It is important to note that even as these insecticide applications reduce SWD populations, they also provide control for other pests such as the light-brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana . As a result, it is difficult to attribute the entire cost of these chemical management programs strictly to the management of SWD. However, few insecticide sprays were applied to California raspberries before the SWD invasion, and the light-brown apple moth, another invasive insect, only impacts portions of the Santa Cruz and Monterey County raspberry production areas at present. The light-brown apple moth can also be effectively controlled more inexpensively with the organic microbial insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner. Therefore, we can infer that the majority of the observed insecticide applications included in this analysis were intended to control SWD populations. We also consider the additional labor costs associated with managing SWD in order to develop a comprehensive estimate of SWD management costs. Like many other horticultural products, raspberries are extremely labor-intensive to produce. Labor, the primary production cost, includes planting, pruning, weeding, spraying, hauling, cleanup, field sanitation, and harvesting.SWD control programs necessitate labor-intensive management practices in addition to chemical applications. Three labor-intensive control activities are currently used to reduce SWD-related yield losses: increasing the frequency of harvests, performing field sanitation, and implementing trapping programs to detect the presence of SWD populations.Further compounding these direct labor costs, the productivity of harvesting labor decreases as more frequent harvests and fruit losses due to SWD reduce the availability of marketable fruit to pick. Labor-intensive management activities are more intensely utilized by organic producers due to the lack of efficacious organic chemicals.